Editing Creole language (section)

====Imperfect L2 learning====
The imperfect L2 ([[second language]]) learning hypothesis claims that pidgins are primarily the result of the imperfect L2 learning of the dominant lexifier language by the slaves. Research on naturalistic L2 processes has revealed a number of features of "interlanguage systems" that are also seen in pidgins and creoles:
* invariant verb forms derived from the infinitive or the least marked finite verb form;
* loss of determiners or use of demonstrative pronouns, adjectives or adverbs as determiners;
* placement of a negative particle in preverbal position;
* use of adverbs to express [[modality (natural language)|modality]];
* fixed single word order with no inversion in questions;
* reduced or absent nominal plural marking.

Imperfect L2 learning is compatible with other approaches, notably the European dialect origin hypothesis and the universalist models of language transmission.<ref>Based on 19th-century intuitions, approaches underlying the imperfect L2 learning hypothesis have been followed up in the works of {{Harvcoltxt|Schumann|1978}}, {{Harvcoltxt|Anderson|1983}}, {{Harvcoltxt|Seuren|Wekker|1986}}, {{Harvcoltxt|Arends|Muysken|Smith|1995}}, {{Harvcoltxt|Geeslin|2002}}, {{Harvcoltxt|Hamilton|Coslett|2008}}.</ref>