Editing DNA sequencing (section)

=== Sequencing of full genomes ===
[[File:Genome map of the bacteriophage ΦX174 showing overlapping genes.svg|thumb|300px|right|The 5,386 bp genome of [[bacteriophage φX174]]. Each coloured block represents a gene.]]{{Main|Whole genome sequencing}}
The first full DNA genome to be sequenced was that of [[bacteriophage φX174]] in 1977.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sanger F, Air GM, Barrell BG, Brown NL, Coulson AR, Fiddes CA, Hutchison CA, Slocombe PM, Smith M | title = Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA | journal = Nature | volume = 265 | issue = 5596 | pages = 687–95 | date = February 1977 | pmid = 870828 | doi = 10.1038/265687a0 | bibcode = 1977Natur.265..687S | s2cid = 4206886 }}</ref> [[Medical Research Council (UK)|Medical Research Council]] scientists deciphered the complete DNA sequence of the [[Epstein-Barr virus]] in 1984, finding it contained 172,282 nucleotides. Completion of the sequence marked a significant turning point in DNA sequencing because it was achieved with no prior genetic profile knowledge of the virus.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The next frontier: Human viruses |url=https://www.whatisbiotechnology.org/index.php/exhibitions/sanger/sequencing|access-date=2023-06-27|website=What is Biotechnology?|language=en|first=L. |last=Marks}}</ref><ref name="Bambara Padmanabhan Wu 1974"/>

A non-radioactive method for transferring the DNA molecules of sequencing reaction mixtures onto an immobilizing matrix during [[electrophoresis]] was developed by Herbert Pohl and co-workers in the early 1980s.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Beck S, Pohl FM | title = DNA sequencing with direct blotting electrophoresis | journal = EMBO J | volume = 3 | issue = 12 | pages = 2905–09 | year = 1984 | pmid = 6396083 | pmc = 557787 | doi = 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1984.tb02230.x }}</ref><ref>United States Patent 4,631,122 (1986)</ref> Followed by the commercialization of the DNA sequencer "Direct-Blotting-Electrophoresis-System GATC 1500" by [[GATC Biotech]], which was intensively used in the framework of the EU genome-sequencing programme, the complete DNA sequence of the yeast ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' chromosome II.<ref name = "Feldmann_1994"/> [[Leroy E. Hood]]'s laboratory at the [[California Institute of Technology]] announced the first semi-automated DNA sequencing machine in 1986.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Smith LM, Sanders JZ, Kaiser RJ, Hughes P, Dodd C, Connell CR, Heiner C, Kent SB, Hood LE | title = Fluorescence Detection in Automated DNA Sequence Analysis | journal = Nature | volume = 321 | issue = 6071 | pages = 674–79 | date = 12 June 1986 | pmid = 3713851 | doi = 10.1038/321674a0 | bibcode = 1986Natur.321..674S | s2cid = 27800972 }}</ref> This was followed by [[Applied Biosystems]]' marketing of the first fully automated sequencing machine, the ABI 370, in 1987 and by Dupont's Genesis 2000<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Prober JM, Trainor GL, Dam RJ, Hobbs FW, Robertson CW, Zagursky RJ, Cocuzza AJ, Jensen MA, Baumeister K | title = A system for rapid DNA sequencing with fluorescent chain-terminating dideoxynucleotides | journal = Science | volume = 238 | issue = 4825 | pages = 336–41 | date = 16 October 1987 | pmid = 2443975 | doi = 10.1126/science.2443975 | bibcode = 1987Sci...238..336P }}</ref> which used a novel fluorescent labeling technique enabling all four [[dideoxynucleotide]]s to be identified in a single lane. By 1990, the U.S. [[National Institutes of Health]] (NIH) had begun large-scale sequencing trials on ''[[Mycoplasma capricolum]]'', ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]'', and ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' at a cost of US$0.75 per base. Meanwhile, sequencing of human [[cDNA]] sequences called [[expressed sequence tag]]s began in [[Craig Venter]]'s lab, an attempt to capture the coding fraction of the [[human genome]].<ref name="pmid2047873">{{cite journal | vauthors = Adams MD, Kelley JM, Gocayne JD, Dubnick M, Polymeropoulos MH, Xiao H, Merril CR, Wu A, Olde B, Moreno RF | title = Complementary DNA sequencing: expressed sequence tags and human genome project | journal = Science | volume = 252 | issue = 5013 | pages = 1651–56 | date = June 1991 | pmid = 2047873 | doi = 10.1126/science.2047873 | bibcode = 1991Sci...252.1651A | s2cid = 13436211 }}</ref> In 1995, Venter, [[Hamilton O. Smith|Hamilton Smith]], and colleagues at [[The Institute for Genomic Research]] (TIGR) published the first complete genome of a free-living organism, the bacterium ''[[Haemophilus influenzae]]''.  The circular chromosome contains 1,830,137 bases and its publication in the journal Science<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fleischmann RD, Adams MD, White O, Clayton RA, Kirkness EF, Kerlavage AR, Bult CJ, Tomb JF, Dougherty BA, Merrick JM | title = Whole-genome random sequencing and assembly of ''Haemophilus influenzae Rd'' | journal = Science | volume = 269 | issue = 5223 | pages = 496–512 | date = July 1995 | pmid = 7542800 | doi = 10.1126/science.7542800 | bibcode = 1995Sci...269..496F }}</ref> marked the first published use of whole-genome shotgun sequencing, eliminating the need for initial mapping efforts.

By 2003, the Human Genome Project's shotgun sequencing methods had been used to produce a draft sequence of the human genome; it had a 92% accuracy.<ref name="Lander_2001"/><ref name="Venter_2001"/><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-11 |title=First complete sequence of a human genome |url=https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/first-complete-sequence-human-genome |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=National Institutes of Health (NIH) |language=EN}}</ref> In 2022, scientists successfully sequenced the last 8% of the human genome. The fully sequenced standard reference gene is called GRCh38.p14, and it contains 3.1 billion base pairs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-11 |title=First complete sequence of a human genome |url=https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/first-complete-sequence-human-genome |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=National Institutes of Health (NIH) |language=EN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hartley |first=Gabrielle |date=2022-03-31 |title=The Human Genome Project pieced together only 92% of the DNA – now scientists have finally filled in the remaining 8% |url=https://theconversation.com/the-human-genome-project-pieced-together-only-92-of-the-dna-now-scientists-have-finally-filled-in-the-remaining-8-176138 |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}}</ref>