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== Common challenges == {{Development economics sidebar}} The [[global issues]] most often discussed by developing countries include [[globalisation]], global health governance, health, and prevention needs. This is contrasted by issues developed nations tend to address, such as innovations in science and technology.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ager|first1=Alastair|last2=Yu|first2=Gary|last3=Hermosilla|first3=Sabrina|date=September 2012|title=Mapping the key issues shaping the landscape of global public health|journal=Global Public Health|volume=7|issue=sup1|pages=S16–S28|doi=10.1080/17441692.2012.679741|pmid=22765282 }}</ref> Most developing countries have these criteria in common:<ref name="UN2018">{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/least-developed-country-category/ldc-criteria.html |title=Criteria For Identification Of LDCs |publisher=[[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs]], Development Policy and Analysis Division |access-date=2 March 2018 |date=4 March 2010 |archive-date=20 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620211438/https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/least-developed-country-category/ldc-criteria.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Criteria">UN-OHRLLS {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190725125957/http://unohrlls.org/about-ldcs/criteria-for-ldcs/ Criteria for Identification and Graduation of LDCs]}}.</ref> * High levels of [[poverty]] – measured based on [[Gross national income|GNI]] per capita averaged over three years. For example, if the GNI per capita is less than US$1,025 (as of 2018) the country is regarded as a [[least developed country]].<ref name="Criteria" /> *[[Human resources|Human resource]] weakness (based on indicators of [[nutrition]], health, education and adult [[literacy]]). *[[Economic Vulnerability Index|Economic vulnerability]] (based on instability of agricultural production, instability of exports of goods and services, economic importance of non-traditional activities, merchandise export concentration, handicap of economic smallness, and the percentage of population displaced by [[natural disasters]]). Among other challenges, developing countries have a higher risk of suffering a balance of payments crisis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Camba-Crespo |first1=A. |last2=García-Solanes |first2=J. |last3=Torrejón-Flores |first3=F. |title=Current-account breaks and stability spells in a global perspective |journal=Applied Economic Analysis |date=7 July 2021 |volume=30 |issue=88 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.1108/AEA-02-2021-0029 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Urban slums=== {{Main|Slum}} According to [[United Nations Human Settlements Programme|UN-Habitat]], around 33% of the urban population in the developing world in 2012, or about 863 million people, lived in [[slum]]s.<ref name="UNHABITATswcr1213">{{cite web|title=State of the World's Cities Report 2012/2013: Prosperity of Cities|publisher=UNHABITAT|url=http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/745habitat.pdf|access-date=4 October 2013|archive-date=4 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004233458/http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/745habitat.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2012, the proportion of urban population living in slums was highest in Sub-Saharan Africa (62%), followed by South Asia (35%), Southeast Asia (31%) and East Asia (28%).<ref name="UNHABITATswcr1213" />{{rp|127}} The UN-Habitat reports that 43% of urban population in developing countries and 78% of those in the least developed countries live in slums.<ref name=grhs2003>[http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/grhs.2003.key.pdf The challenge of slums – Global report on Human Settlements] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055009/http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/grhs.2003.key.pdf |date=21 September 2013 }}, United Nations Habitat (2003)</ref> Slums form and grow in different parts of the world for many reasons. Causes include rapid [[Urbanization|rural-to-urban migration]], [[economic stagnation]] and depression, high [[unemployment]], poverty, [[Informal sector|informal economy]], forced or manipulated [[ghetto]]ization, poor planning, politics, natural disasters and [[social conflict]]s.<ref name=whyslums>{{cite web |url=http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/4625_51419_GC%2021%20What%20are%20slums.pdf | title =What are slums and why do they exist? | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110206143558/http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/4625_51419_GC%2021%20What%20are%20slums.pdf | archive-date = 6 February 2011 | publisher = UN-Habitat | location = Kenya | date = April 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Patton | first1 = Carl V. | name-list-style = vanc | title = Spontaneous Shelter: International Perspectives and Prospects | date=1988 |publisher=Temple University Press |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-87722-507-2 }}{{pn|date=May 2025}}</ref><ref name=grhs2011>{{cite web |url=http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/GRHS.2003.2.pdf | title = Assessing Slums in the Development Context | publisher = United Nations Habitat Group | year = 2011 | access-date = 16 September 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105025237/http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/GRHS.2003.2.pdf | archive-date = 5 January 2014 | url-status = dead | df = dmy-all }}</ref> For example, as populations expand in poorer countries, rural people move to cities in extensive urban migration that results in the creation of slums.<ref name="Westra">{{cite journal | last = Westra | first = Richard | name-list-style = vanc | year = 2011 | title = Renewing Socialist Development in the Third World | journal = [[Journal of Contemporary Asia]] | volume = 41 | issue = 4 | pages = 519–543 | doi = 10.1080/00472336.2011.610612 }}</ref> In some cities, especially in countries in Southern Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, slums are not just marginalized neighborhoods holding a small population; slums are widespread, and are home to a large part of urban population. These are sometimes called "slum cities".<ref>{{cite book|title=Slum Cities and Cities with Slums" States of the World's Cities 2008/2009|publisher=UN-Habitat}}</ref> ===Violence against women=== {{Main|Violence against women}} [[File:A formation of human chain at India Gate by the women from different walks of life at the launch of a National Campaign on prevention of violence against women, in New Delhi on October 02, 2009.jpg|thumb|A formation of human chain at India Gate by the women from different walks of life at the launch of a National Campaign on prevention of violence against women, in New Delhi on 2 October 2009]] Several forms of [[violence against women]] are more prevalent in developing countries than in other parts of the world. [[Acid throwing]] is associated with Southeast Asia, including Cambodia. [[Honor killing]] is associated with the Middle East and the Indian Subcontinent. [[Marriage by abduction]] is found in Ethiopia, Central Asia and the Caucasus. Abuse related to payment of [[bride price]] (such as violence, trafficking and forced marriage) is linked to parts of Sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania.<ref>{{cite news | title = Papua New Guinea: police cite bride price major factor in marital violence | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218182845/http://www.violenceisnotourculture.org/News-and-Views/papua-new-guinea-police-cite-bride-price-major-factor-marital-violence | archive-date = 18 February 2015 |url=http://www.violenceisnotourculture.org/News-and-Views/papua-new-guinea-police-cite-bride-price-major-factor-marital-violence | work = Island Business |via=Violence is not our Culture |date=21 November 2011 |access-date=6 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=An exploratory study of bride price and domestic violence in Bundibugyo District, Uganda |url=http://www.mrc.ac.za/gender/Bridepricedomesticviolence.pdf |publisher=Centre for Human Rights Advancement (CEHURA) and [[South African Medical Research Council]] |date=April 2012 |access-date=6 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130717105205/http://www.mrc.ac.za/gender/Bridepricedomesticviolence.pdf |archive-date=17 July 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Female genital mutilation]] (FGM) is another form of violence against women which is still occurring in many developing countries. It is found mostly in Africa, and to a lesser extent in the Middle East and some other parts of Asia. Developing countries with the highest rate of women who have been cut are Somalia (with 98% of women affected), Guinea (96%), Djibouti (93%), Egypt (91%), Eritrea (89%), Mali (89%), Sierra Leone (88%), Sudan (88%), Gambia (76%), Burkina Faso (76%), and Ethiopia (74%).<ref name="unicef.org">{{cite book | last = UNICEF | author-link = UNICEF | title = Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A statistical overview and exploration of the dynamics of change |url=http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf | publisher = [[UNICEF]] | date = 22 July 2013 | access-date = 18 November 2013 | archive-date = 5 April 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405083031/http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref> Due to [[globalization]] and immigration, FGM is spreading beyond the borders of Africa, Asia and the Middle East, and to countries such as Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, New Zealand, the U.S., and UK.<ref>{{cite book | last = Nussbaum | first = Martha | name-list-style = vanc | author-link = Martha Nussbaum | chapter = Judging other cultures: the case of genital mutilation | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=43U8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 | editor-last = Nussbaum | editor-first = Martha | editor-link = Martha Nussbaum | title = Sex & social justice | pages = [https://archive.org/details/sexsocialjustice00nuss/page/120 120–121] | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = New York | year = 1999 | isbn = 978-0195110326 | url-access = registration |url=https://archive.org/details/sexsocialjustice00nuss/page/120 }}</ref> The [[Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence|Istanbul Convention]] prohibits female genital mutilation (Article 38).<ref>{{cite book | title = Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence |url=https://rm.coe.int/168046031c | date = 12 April 2011 | access-date = 8 October 2017 | archive-date = 26 May 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526172721/https://rm.coe.int/168046031c | url-status = live }}</ref> As of 2016, [[FGM]] has been legally banned in many African countries.<ref>''Citations'': * {{cite news | last = Lyons | first = Kate | title = The Gambia bans female genital mutilation |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/nov/24/the-gambia-bans-female-genital-mutilation | work = [[The Guardian]] | date = 24 November 2015 | access-date = 9 May 2016 | archive-date = 4 January 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180104210127/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/nov/24/the-gambia-bans-female-genital-mutilation | url-status = live }} * {{cite news | last = Richards | first = Kimberly | title = History has been made: female genital mutilation banned in Nigeria |url=http://aplus.com/a/nigeria-bans-genital-mutilation | work = [[A Plus (aplus.com)|A Plus]] | date = 3 June 2015 | access-date = 9 May 2016 | archive-date = 8 May 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508152355/http://aplus.com/a/nigeria-bans-genital-mutilation | url-status = live }} * {{cite book | last = UNFPA | author-link = UNFPA | title = Female genital mutilation (FGM) frequently asked questions |url=http://www.unfpa.org/resources/female-genital-mutilation-fgm-frequently-asked-questions | publisher = [[United Nations Population Fund]] | date = December 2015 | access-date = 9 May 2016 | archive-date = 4 August 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804194439/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/nov/24/the-gambia-bans-female-genital-mutilation | url-status = live }}</ref> [[File:Women who experienced violence by an intimate partner, OWID.svg|alt=An image showing statistics by percentage of share of women, older than 14 years old who experienced violence by an intimate partner.|thumb|239x239px|Percentage of women older than 14 who have experienced violence by an intimate partner]] According to [[UN Women]] facts and figures on ending [[violence against women]],<ref name=":10" /> it is estimated that 35 percent of women worldwide have experienced either physical and [[Intimate partner sexual violence|sexual violence by intimate partners]] or [[sexual violence]] by a non-partner (not including [[sexual harassment]]) at some point in their lives. Evidence shows women who have had experienced physical or sexual [[intimate partner violence]] report higher rates of depression, having an [[abortion]] and acquiring [[HIV]], compared to women who have not had experienced any physical or sexual violence.<ref name=":10" /> Data from the [[Middle East]] and [[North Africa]] shows that men who witnessed their fathers against their mothers, and men who experienced some form of violence as children, more likely have reported perpetrating intimate partner violence in their adult relationships.<ref name=":10">{{cite web|title=Facts and figures: Ending violence against women|url=https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ending-violence-against-women/facts-and-figures|access-date=26 September 2020|website=UN Women|language=en|archive-date=25 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525050922/http://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ending-violence-against-women/facts-and-figures|url-status=live}}</ref> === Healthcare and public health === The status of healthcare that the general public can access is substantially different between developing countries and developed countries.<ref name=":11">{{cite journal|last1=Alhaji|first1=Mohammed M.|last2=Alam|first2=Sartaj|date=21 March 2019|title=Health Policy and System Research in Global South: Bridging the Gap through Citizen Participation|url=http://ejournalsystem.net/index.php/jpmi/article/view/2474|journal=Journal of Postgraduate Medical Institute|volume=33|issue=1|access-date=23 September 2020|archive-date=2 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002001218/http://ejournalsystem.net/index.php/jpmi/article/view/2474|url-status=dead}}</ref> People in developing countries usually have a lower [[life expectancy]] than people in developed countries, reflecting both lower income levels and poorer public health.<ref name=":12">{{cite journal |last1=Jetter |first1=Michael |last2=Laudage |first2=Sabine |last3=Stadelmann |first3=David |title=The Intimate Link Between Income Levels and Life Expectancy: Global Evidence from 213 Years |journal=Social Science Quarterly |date=June 2019 |volume=100 |issue=4 |pages=1387–1403 |doi=10.1111/ssqu.12638 |hdl=10419/145149 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":13">{{cite journal |last1=Rogers |first1=R. G. |last2=Wofford |first2=S. |title=Life expectancy in less developed countries: socioeconomic development or public health? |journal=Journal of Biosocial Science |date=April 1989 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=245–252 |doi=10.1017/s0021932000017934 |pmid=2722920 }}</ref><ref name=":14">{{cite journal |last1=Freeman |first1=Toby |last2=Gesesew |first2=Hailay Abrha |last3=Bambra |first3=Clare |last4=Giugliani |first4=Elsa Regina Justo |last5=Popay |first5=Jennie |last6=Sanders |first6=David |last7=Macinko |first7=James |last8=Musolino |first8=Connie |last9=Baum |first9=Fran |title=Why do some countries do better or worse in life expectancy relative to income? An analysis of Brazil, Ethiopia, and the United States of America |journal=International Journal for Equity in Health |date=10 November 2020 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=202 |doi=10.1186/s12939-020-01315-z |pmid=33168040 |pmc=7654592 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The burden of infectious diseases,<ref name=":15">{{cite journal |last1=Fauci |first1=A. S. |title=Infectious Diseases: Considerations for the 21st Century |journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases |date=1 March 2001 |volume=32 |issue=5 |pages=675–685 |doi=10.1086/319235 |pmid=11229834 }}</ref> [[Maternal death|maternal mortality]],<ref name=":16">{{cite journal |last1=Declercq |first1=Eugene |last2=Zephyrin |first2=Laurie |title=Maternal Mortality in the United States: A Primer |url=https://www.commonwealthfund.org/publications/issue-brief-report/2020/dec/maternal-mortality-united-states-primer |website=Commonwealth Fund |date=16 December 2020 |doi=10.26099/ta1q-mw24 |access-date=14 April 2022 |language=en |archive-date=23 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210323202309/https://www.commonwealthfund.org/publications/issue-brief-report/2020/dec/maternal-mortality-united-states-primer |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":17">{{cite journal |last1=Girum |first1=Tadele |last2=Wasie |first2=Abebaw |title=Correlates of maternal mortality in developing countries: an ecological study in 82 countries |journal=Maternal Health, Neonatology and Perinatology |date=7 November 2017 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=19 |doi=10.1186/s40748-017-0059-8 |pmid=29142757 |pmc=5674830 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[child mortality]]<ref name=":18">{{cite web |last1=Mohsin |first1=Nazzina |last2=Keenan |first2=Laura |last3=Guo |first3=Jing |title=Latest child mortality estimates reveal world remains off track to meeting Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2021/12/20/latest-child-mortality-estimates-reveal-world-remains-off-track-to-meeting-sustainable-development-goals |website=World Bank |date=20 December 2021 |access-date=14 April 2022 |language=en |archive-date=14 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414172358/https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2021/12/20/latest-child-mortality-estimates-reveal-world-remains-off-track-to-meeting-sustainable-development-goals |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[infant mortality]]<ref name="MPG">{{cite web |title=In poor countries birth spacing affects infant mortality |url=https://www.mpg.de/13691716/birth-spacing-affects-infant-mortality |website=Max-Planck-Gesellschaft |date=5 July 2019 |access-date=14 April 2022 |language=en |archive-date=29 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220629163139/https://www.mpg.de/13691716/birth-spacing-affects-infant-mortality |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Molitoris">{{cite journal |last1=Molitoris |first1=Joseph |last2=Barclay |first2=Kieron |last3=Kolk |first3=Martin |title=When and Where Birth Spacing Matters for Child Survival: An International Comparison Using the DHS |journal=Demography |date=3 July 2019 |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=1349–1370 |doi=10.1007/s13524-019-00798-y |pmid=31270780 |pmc=6667399 }}</ref> are typically substantially higher in those countries. Developing countries also have less access to medical health services generally,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Peters |first1=David H. |last2=Garg |first2=Anu |last3=Bloom |first3=Gerry |last4=Walker |first4=Damian G. |last5=Brieger |first5=William R. |last6=Rahman |first6=M. Hafizur |title=Poverty and access to health care in developing countries |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |date=2008 |volume=1136 |issue=1 |pages=161–171 |doi=10.1196/annals.1425.011 |pmid=17954679 |bibcode=2008NYASA1136..161P |doi-access=free }}</ref> and are less likely to have the resources to purchase, produce and administer [[vaccine]]s, even though [[vaccine equity]] worldwide is important to combatting [[pandemic]]s, such as the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref name="Hotez">{{cite journal |last1=Hotez |first1=Peter J. |last2=Bottazzi |first2=Maria Elena |title=Whole Inactivated Virus and Protein-Based COVID-19 Vaccines |journal=Annual Review of Medicine |date=27 January 2022 |volume=73 |issue=1 |pages=55–64 |doi=10.1146/annurev-med-042420-113212 |pmid=34637324 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[File:Hunger Map 2020 World Food Programme.svg|thumb|310px|Percentage of people with undernutrition by country, [[World Food Programme|World Food Program]], 2020<br /> {{Legend|#29b8c7|Under 2.5%}} {{Legend|#16b484|2.5% – 5.0%}} {{Legend|#fec960|5.0% – 14.9%}} {{Legend|#f47846|15.0% – 24.9%}} {{Legend|#f2203a|25.0% – 34.9%}} {{Legend|#7f0928|Over 35.0%}} {{Legend|#b5aba4|No data}}]] [[Malnutrition|Undernutrition]] is more common in developing countries.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w4CGAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20|title=World Hunger Routledge Introductions to Development| first = Liz | last = Young | name-list-style = vanc |date=2002|isbn=9781134774944|page=20|publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780203136874 }}</ref> Certain groups have higher rates of undernutrition, including women – in particular while pregnant or [[breastfeeding]] – children under five years of age, and the elderly. [[Undernutrition in children|Malnutrition in children]] and [[stunted growth]] of children is the cause for more than 200 million children under five years of age in developing countries not reaching their developmental potential.<ref>Grantham-McGregor, Sally et al., the International Child Development Steering Group. "Developmental Potential in the First 5 Years for Children in Developing Countries." Lancet 369.9555 (2007): 60–70. PMC. Web. 28 November 2014.</ref> About 165 million children were estimated to have stunted growth from malnutrition in 2013.<ref name=Bh2013>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bhutta ZA, Das JK, Rizvi A, Gaffey MF, Walker N, Horton S, Webb P, Lartey A, Black RE | title = Evidence-based interventions for improvement of maternal and child nutrition: what can be done and at what cost? | journal = Lancet | volume = 382 | issue = 9890 | pages = 452–477 | date = August 2013 | pmid = 23746776 | doi = 10.1016/s0140-6736(13)60996-4 }}</ref> In some developing countries, overnutrition in the form of [[obesity]] is beginning to present within the same communities as undernutrition.<ref>{{cite web|title=Progress For Children: A Report Card On Nutrition|url=http://www.unicef.org/nutrition/files/Progress_for_Children_-_No._4.pdf|publisher=UNICEF|access-date=23 April 2018|archive-date=12 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112154958/https://www.unicef.org/nutrition/files/Progress_for_Children_-_No._4.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The following list shows the further significant environmentally-related causes or conditions, as well as certain diseases with a strong environmental component:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/heli/risks/ehindevcoun/en|title=Environment and health in developing countries|date=8 September 2016|website=Priority environment and health risks|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|access-date=4 October 2020|archive-date=14 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201114002040/https://www.who.int/heli/risks/ehindevcoun/en/|url-status=live}}</ref> * Illness/[[disease]] ([[malaria]], [[tuberculosis]], [[AIDS]], etc.): Illness imposes high and regressive cost burdens on families in developing countries.<ref>Russel S. The economic burden of illness for households in developing countries: a review of studies focusing on malaria, tuberculosis, and human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2004</ref> * Tropical and infectious diseases ([[neglected tropical diseases]]) * Unsafe [[drinking water]], poor [[sanitation]] and hygiene * [[Indoor air pollution in developing nations]] * Pollution (e.g. [[air pollution]], [[water pollution]]) * Motor vehicle collisions * Unintentional poisoning * Non communicable diseases and weak [[Health care|healthcare]] systems ===Water, sanitation, hygiene (WASH)=== {{Further|WASH|Water issues in developing countries}} Access to water, sanitation and hygiene ([[WASH]]) services is at very low levels in many developing countries. In 2015 the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) estimated that "1 in 3 people, or 2.4 billion, are still without sanitation facilities" while 663 million people still lack access to safe and clean drinking water.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/jmp-2015-key-facts/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703230219/http://who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/jmp-2015-key-facts/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 July 2015|title=Key facts from JMP 2015 report|website=World Health Organization|language=en-GB|access-date=17 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2015/jmp-report/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702063242/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2015/jmp-report/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 July 2015|title=WHO {{!}} Lack of sanitation for 2.4 billion people is undermining health improvements|website=www.who.int|access-date=17 November 2017}}</ref> The estimate in 2017 by [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|JMP]] states that 4.5 billion people currently do not have safely managed sanitation.<ref name="JMP2017" /> The majority of these people live in developing countries. About 892 million people or 12 percent of the global population, practiced [[open defecation]] instead of using toilets in 2016.<ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://washdata.org/reports Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725020452/https://washdata.org/reports |date=25 July 2019 }}. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 2017</ref> Seventy-six percent (678 million) of the 892 million people practicing open defecation in the world live in just seven countries.<ref name="JMP2017" /> Countries with a high number of people openly defecating are India (348 million), followed by Nigeria (38.1 million), Indonesia (26.4 million), Ethiopia (23.1 million), Pakistan (19.7 million), Niger (14.6 million) and Sudan (9.7 million).<ref name="WBSTATS">{{cite web|title=People practicing open defecation (% of population) – Indonesia, Nigeria, Niger, Ethiopia, Sudan, India, Pakistan|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS?locations=ID-NG-NE-ET-SD-IN-PK|website=data.worldbank.org|publisher=[[The World Bank]]|access-date=15 October 2019|archive-date=15 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015122909/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS%3Flocations%3DID-NG-NE-ET-SD-IN-PK|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Sustainable Development Goal 6]] is one of 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]] established by the UN in 2015. It calls for clean water and sanitation for all people. This is particularly relevant for people in developing countries. ===Energy=== [[File:Solar-Panel-Cooker-in-front-of-hut.jpg|thumb| [[Solar cooker]]s use sunlight as energy source for outdoor cooking.]] {{Main|Energy poverty|Renewable energy in developing countries}} In 2009, about 1.4 billion of people in the world lived without electricity. 2.7 billion relied on wood, charcoal, and dung ([[dry animal dung fuel]]) for home energy requirements. This lack of access to modern energy technology limits income generation, blunts efforts to escape poverty, affects people's health due to indoor air pollution, and contributes to global [[deforestation]] and [[climate change]]. Small-scale renewable energy technologies and [[distributed energy]] options, such as onsite solar power and improved cookstoves, offer rural households modern energy services.<ref name=verlaw>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sovacool BK | title = Energy. Deploying off-grid technology to eradicate energy poverty | journal = Science | volume = 338 | issue = 6103 | pages = 47–8 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 23042871 | doi = 10.1126/science.1222307 }}</ref> [[Renewable energy in developing countries|Renewable energy]] can be particularly suitable for developing countries. In rural and remote areas, transmission and distribution of energy generated from [[fossil fuels]] can be difficult and expensive. Producing renewable energy locally can offer a viable alternative.<ref name=aus>[http://www.ausaid.gov.au/publications/pdf/renewable_energy.pdf Power for the People] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330120425/http://www.ausaid.gov.au/publications/pdf/renewable_energy.pdf |date=30 March 2012 }} p. 3.</ref> Renewable energy can directly contribute to [[poverty alleviation]] by providing the energy needed for creating businesses and employment. Renewable energy technologies can also make indirect contributions to alleviating poverty by providing energy for cooking, space heating, and lighting.<ref name=mdg>[http://www.worldwatch.org/system/files/ren21-1.pdf Energy for Development: The Potential Role of Renewable Energy in Meeting the Millennium Development Goals] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527233918/http://www.worldwatch.org/system/files/ren21-1.pdf |date=27 May 2008 }} pp. 7–9.</ref> Kenya is the world leader in the number of [[solar power]] systems installed per capita.<ref name="en.ccchina.gov.cn">{{cite web |url=http://en.ccchina.gov.cn/Detail.aspx?newsId=38323&TId=97 |title=China Climate Change Info-Net |access-date=30 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105071350/http://en.ccchina.gov.cn/Detail.aspx?newsId=38323&TId=97 |archive-date=5 November 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> === Pollution === ==== Water pollution ==== [[File:Factory in China at Yangtze River.JPG|thumb|Factory in China at [[Yangtze|Yangtze River]] causing [[air pollution]]]] [[File:Plastic Pollution in Ghana.jpg|thumb|[[Plastic pollution]] at a beach near [[Accra]], Ghana]] [[Water pollution]] is a major problem in many developing countries. It requires ongoing evaluation and revision of [[water resource policy]] at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells). It has been suggested that water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of death and diseases,<ref name="death">{{cite news|url=https://finance.yahoo.com/columnist/article/trenddesk/3748 | last = Pink | first = Daniel H. | name-list-style = vanc |publisher=Yahoo |title=Investing in Tomorrow's Liquid Gold |date=19 April 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060423172532/https://finance.yahoo.com/columnist/article/trenddesk/3748 |archive-date=23 April 2006 }}</ref><ref name="death2">{{cite news |url=http://environment.about.com/od/environmentalevents/a/waterdayqa.htm |last=West |first=Larry |name-list-style=vanc |publisher=About.com |title=World Water Day: A Billion People Worldwide Lack Safe Drinking Water |date=26 March 2006 |access-date=30 April 2018 |archive-date=27 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227153137/http://environment.about.com/od/environmentalevents/a/waterdayqa.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily.<ref name="death2" /> India and China are two countries with high levels of water pollution: An estimated 580 people in India die of water pollution related illness (including [[waterborne diseases]]) every day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://inclentrust.org/uploadedbyfck/file/Diarrhoea-Pneumonia/Lecture%203_1%20Burden%20of%20diarrhea%20in%20children%20in%20India%20-12th%20dec.pdf |title=An overview of diarrhea, symptoms, diagnosis and the costs of morbidity |year=2010 |work=CHNRI |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512231350/http://www.inclentrust.org/uploadedbyfck/file/Diarrhoea-Pneumonia/Lecture%203_1%20Burden%20of%20diarrhea%20in%20children%20in%20India%20-12th%20dec.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013 }}</ref> About 90 percent of the [[Water resources of China|water in the cities of China]] is polluted.<ref>"[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-06/07/content_449451.htm China says water pollution so severe that cities could lack safe supplies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630102454/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-06/07/content_449451.htm |date=30 June 2017 }}". Chinadaily.com.cn. 7 June 2005.</ref> As of 2007, half a billion Chinese had no access to safe drinking water.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kahn |first1=Joseph |last2=Yardley |first2=Jim |name-list-style=vanc |date=26 August 2007 |title=As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/26/world/asia/26china.html |newspaper=New York Times |access-date=30 April 2018 |archive-date=22 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722082111/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/26/world/asia/26china.html |url-status=live }}</ref> However, after a series of reforms, China's environment began to demonstrate enormous improvements around the 2010s. Under the [[Xi Jinping Administration|leadership]] of [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP general secretary]] [[Xi Jinping]], a sizable fraction of high-pollution industries have been gradually phased out and many illegally polluting factories were sanctioned or closed. A considerable amount of effort went to enforce environmental regulations at regional levels and holding persons of malpractice accountable, including officials and firm managers. The slogan "[[Clear waters and green mountains|clear waters and green mountains are as valuable as gold and silver mountains]]" proposed by Chinese leader Xi Jinping in 2005<ref>{{cite web |title=习近平:绿水青山就是金山银山_新华网 |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/szzsyzt/lsqs2017/index.htm |access-date=11 February 2022 |archive-date=8 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308215121/http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/szzsyzt/lsqs2017/index.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> signifies China's determination in amending environmental burdens created during industrialization while shifting to more sustainable modes of development and adopting high-end industries. Water bodies around the country are much cleaner than a decade ago and steadily approaching natural levels in pollutants. In 2021, China introduced the "coal to gas" policy<ref>{{cite web |title="煤改气"是碳达峰的重要一环,需求有望超预期! |url=http://www.fcgs.gov.cn/zrgs/dtxx/202105/t20210506_199603.html |access-date=11 February 2022 |archive-date=12 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220212032110/http://www.fcgs.gov.cn/zrgs/dtxx/202105/t20210506_199603.html |url-status=live }}</ref> as one of many policies directed towards achieving peak carbon emissions in 2060. Coal combustion in homes, power stations and production industries constitutes 60% of total energy consumption in China and is the main source of water and air pollution. It is speculated that pollution sources will be progressively eliminated as China reaches the upper tiers of developing countries. Further details of water pollution in several countries, including many developing countries: {{world topic|Water pollution in|title=Water pollution by country|noredlinks=yes|show=yes}} ====Indoor air pollution==== [[Indoor air pollution in developing nations]] is a major health hazard.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bruce N, Perez-Padilla R, Albalak R | title = Indoor air pollution in developing countries: a major environmental and public health challenge | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume = 78 | issue = 9 | pages = 1078–92 | date = 2000 | pmid = 11019457 | pmc = 2560841 }}</ref> A major source of indoor air pollution in developing countries is the burning of [[biomass]]. Three billion people in developing countries across the globe rely on biomass in the form of wood, [[charcoal]], [[Manure|dung]], and [[crop residue]], as their domestic cooking fuel.<ref name="index130">{{cite journal|vauthors=Duflo E, Greenstone M, Hanna R|year=2008|title=Indoor air pollution, health and economic well-being|url=http://sapiens.revues.org/index130.html|journal=S.A.P.I.EN.S|volume=1|issue=1|access-date=30 April 2018|archive-date=10 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100110102416/http://sapiens.revues.org/index130.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Because much of the cooking is carried out indoors in environments that lack proper ventilation, millions of people, primarily poor women and children face serious health risks. Globally, 4.3 million deaths were attributed to exposure to IAP in developing countries in 2012, almost all in low and middle income countries. The South East Asian and Western Pacific regions bear most of the burden with 1.69 and 1.62 million deaths, respectively. Almost 600,000 deaths occur in Africa.<ref name="WHO1">{{cite web|title=Burden of disease from Indoor Air Pollution for 2012|url=https://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/databases/FINAL_HAP_AAP_BoD_24March2014.pdf?ua=1|publisher=WHO|access-date=28 March 2014|date=24 March 2014|archive-date=5 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405141320/https://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/databases/FINAL_HAP_AAP_BoD_24March2014.pdf?ua=1|url-status=live}}</ref> An earlier estimate from 2000 put the death toll between 1.5 million and 2 million deaths.<ref name="Ezzati">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ezzati M, Kammen DM | title = The health impacts of exposure to indoor air pollution from solid fuels in developing countries: knowledge, gaps, and data needs | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 110 | issue = 11 | pages = 1057–68 | date = November 2002 | pmid = 12417475 | pmc = 1241060 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.021101057 | bibcode = 2002EnvHP.110.1057E }}</ref> Finding an affordable solution to address the many effects of indoor air pollution is complex. Strategies include improving combustion, reducing smoke exposure, improving safety and reducing labor, reducing fuel costs, and addressing sustainability.<ref name="index130"/> ===Climate change{{anchor|Global_warming}}=== {{Further|Effects of climate change|Climate change in Africa|Climate change in South Asia}} ====Particular vulnerability to climate change==== [[File:Change in Average Temperature With Fahrenheit.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|right|Surface air temperature change over the past 50 years.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GISS Surface Temperature Analysis (v4) |url=https://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/maps/index_v4.html |access-date=12 January 2024 |website=NASA}}</ref>]] The [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) has confirmed that warming of the climate system due to human intervention is 'unequivocal'.<ref name=":8">{{cite book |doi=10.1017/cbo9781107415324.023 |chapter=Near-term Climate Change: Projections and Predictability |title=Climate Change 2013 – the Physical Science Basis |date=2014 |pages=953–1028 |isbn=978-1-107-05799-9 }}</ref> The [[effects of climate change]] will be felt around the globe and will result in events such as [[Extreme weather|extreme weather events]], droughts, floods, [[biodiversity loss]], disease and [[sea level rise]], which are dangerous for societies and the environment.<ref name=":0" /> Although 79% of carbon emissions are produced by developed countries,<ref>Center for Global Development, 18 August 2015 [https://www.cgdev.org/media/who-caused-climate-change-historically "Developed Countries Are Responsible for 79 Percent of Historical Carbon Emissions"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201222050116/https://www.cgdev.org/media/who-caused-climate-change-historically |date=22 December 2020 }}</ref> and developing countries have not been the major cause of climate change,<ref name=":8" /> they are the most at risk from the effects of these changes and may face challenges in [[Climate change adaptation|adapting to climate change]] due to the intersecting issues of high climate vulnerability, low economic status,<ref>UK Government Official Documents, February 2021, [https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/957629/Dasgupta_Review_-_Headline_Messages.pdf "The Economics of Biodiversity: The Dasgupta Review Headline Messages"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520070152/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/957629/Dasgupta_Review_-_Headline_Messages.pdf |date=20 May 2022 }} p. 2</ref> restricted access to technology, failing infrastructure and limited access to financial resources. Where a country is particularly [[Climate change vulnerability|vulnerable to climate change]] they are called "highly climate vulnerable"{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}. This applies to many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, [[fragile state]]s or [[failed state]]s like Afghanistan, Haiti, Myanmar, and Somalia, as well as to [[Small Island Developing States]]{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}. In the cases where developing countries produce only small quantities of greenhouse gas emissions per capita but are very vulnerable to the negative effects of global warming, the term "forced riders" as opposed to the "free riders" has been used as a descriptor.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":3">{{cite web|title=Australia, the US and Europe are climate 'free-riders': it's time to step up|url=https://theconversation.com/australia-the-us-and-europe-are-climate-free-riders-its-time-to-step-up-53953|access-date=4 May 2018|work=The Conversation (Australia edition)|date=5 February 2016 |archive-date=4 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180504155748/https://theconversation.com/australia-the-us-and-europe-are-climate-free-riders-its-time-to-step-up-53953|url-status=live}}</ref> Such countries include Comoros, The Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, São Tomé and Príncipe, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu.<ref name=":3" /> Climate vulnerability has been quantified in the [[Climate Vulnerability Monitor]] reports of 2010 and 2012. Climate vulnerability in developing countries occurs in four key areas: health, extreme weather, [[habitat loss]], and economic stress.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /> A report by the Climate Vulnerability Monitor in 2012 estimated that climate change causes 400,000 deaths on average each year, mainly due to hunger and communicable diseases in developing countries.<ref name="CVM report 2012">{{Cite book|editor=Matthew McKinnon|title=Climate vulnerability monitor : a guide to the cold calculus of a hot planet|date=2012|publisher=DARA|others=DARA, Climate Vulnerable Forum|isbn=9788461605675|edition=2nd|location=Madrid|oclc=828337356}}{{pn|date=May 2025}}</ref>{{Rp|17}} These effects are most severe for the world's poorest countries. Internationally there is recognition of the mismatch between those that have caused climate change and those which will suffer the most from climate change, termed "[[climate justice]]". It has been a topic for discussion at some of the [[United Nations Climate Change conference|United Nations Climate Change Conferences]] (COP). "When we think about livelihoods at risk from climate change impacts, we know that people living in developing countries, and especially the least-developed countries and small island states, often have the least financial resources to adapt", says Nancy Saich, the [[European Investment Bank]]'s chief climate change expert.<ref>{{cite web|title=A plan for the long haul to contribute finance to the European Green Deal|url=https://www.eib.org/en/stories/climate-bank-roadmap|access-date=10 June 2021|website=European Investment Bank|language=en|archive-date=19 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619233202/https://www.eib.org/en/stories/climate-bank-roadmap|url-status=live}}</ref> ====Effects==== A changing climate also results in economic burdens. The economies in [[Least Developed Countries]] have lost an average of 7% of their [[gross domestic product]] for the year 2010, mainly due to reduced [[Workforce productivity|labor productivity]].<ref name="CVM report 2012" />{{Rp|14}} Rising sea levels cost 1% of GDP to the least developed countries in 2010 – 4% in the Pacific – with 65 billion dollars annually lost from the [[world economy]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://www.preventionweb.net/english/professional/publications/v.php?id=17016|title=Climate vulnerability monitor 2010: the state of the climate crisis – Documents & Publications – Professional Resources|publisher=PreventionWeb.net|access-date=26 June 2013|archive-date=11 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311074817/http://www.preventionweb.net/english/professional/publications/v.php?id=17016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Another example is the effect on [[Fishery|fisheries]]: approximately 40 countries are acutely vulnerable to the effects of [[Greenhouse gas|greenhouse gas emissions]] on fisheries. Developing countries with large fisheries sectors are particularly affected.<ref name="CVM report 2012" />{{Rp|279}} During the [[2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference|Cancún COP16 in 2010]], [[List of development aid country donors|donor countries]] promised an annual $100 billion by 2020 through the [[Green Climate Fund]] for developing countries to adapt to climate change. However, concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dandc.eu/en/article/climate-finance-terrible-sense-limbo-says-iied-expert-saleemul-huq|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012042541/http://www.dandc.eu/articles/220605/index.en.shtml|url-status = dead|title=Climate finance is in "a terrible sense of limbo", says IIED expert Saleemul Huq|archive-date=12 October 2012|website=D+C}}</ref><ref name="International_Adaptation_Finance">{{cite book|url=http://www.eed.de/fix/files/doc/2008_BMueller_int_adapatation_finance.pdf|title=International Adaptation Finance: The Need for an Innovative and Strategic Approach 4 (Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, Working Paper)|last1=Müller|first1=Benito|date=2008|publisher=Oxford Institute for Energy Studies|isbn=978-1-901795-76-9|location=Oxford|name-list-style=vanc|access-date=11 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229175020/http://www.eed.de/fix/files/doc/2008_BMueller_int_adapatation_finance.pdf|archive-date=29 February 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Emmanuel Macron]] ([[President of France]]) said at the [[2017 United Nations Climate Change Conference]] in Bonn (COP 23): "Climate change adds further injustice to an already unfair world".<ref name="Carrington-2017.11.15">Damian Carrington, [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/nov/15/climate-change-will-determine-humanitys-destiny-says-angela-merkel "Climate change will determine humanity's destiny, says Angela Merkel"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180319095124/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/nov/15/climate-change-will-determine-humanitys-destiny-says-angela-merkel |date=19 March 2018 }}, ''[[The Guardian]]'', 15 November 2017 (page visited on 15 November 2017).</ref> [[Economic development]] and climate are inextricably linked, particularly around poverty, [[gender equality]], and energy.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|last1=Ansuategi, A|last2=Greño, P|last3=Houlden, V|display-authors=etal|date=May 2015|title=The impact of climate change on the achievement of the post-2015 sustainable development goals|url=http://cdkn.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Impact-of-climate-on-SDGs-technical-report-CDKN.pdf|access-date=20 May 2015|publisher=CDKN & HR Wallingford|archive-date=26 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150926020447/http://cdkn.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Impact-of-climate-on-SDGs-technical-report-CDKN.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Tackling climate change will only be possible if the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) are met, in particular [[Sustainable Development Goal 13]] on [[Individual and political action on climate change|climate action]].<ref name=":1" /> Climate stress is likely to add to existing [[Human migration|migration]] patterns in developing countries and beyond but is not expected to generate entirely new flows of people.<ref name="wdr migration">{{citation|title=Managing social risks: Empower communities to protect themselves|author=The World Bank|chapter=Part One: Chapter 2: Reducing Human Vulnerability: Helping People Help Themselves|chapter-url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2010/Resources/5287678-1226014527953/Chapter-2.pdf|access-date=27 March 2018|archive-date=7 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110507173000/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2010/Resources/5287678-1226014527953/Chapter-2.pdf|url-status=live}}, p. 109, {{harvnb|WDR|2010}}.</ref>{{Rp|110|date=November 2012}} A report by the [[World Bank]] in 2018 estimated that around 143 million people in three regions (Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Latin America) could be forced to move within their own countries to escape the slow-onset effects of climate change. They will migrate from less viable areas with lower water availability and [[Agricultural productivity|crop productivity]] and from areas affected by rising sea level and [[storm surge]]s.<ref>Rigaud, Kanta Kumari; de Sherbinin, Alex; Jones, Bryan; Bergmann, Jonas; Clement, Viviane; Ober, Kayly; Schewe, Jacob; Adamo, Susana; McCusker, Brent; Heuser, Silke; Midgley, Amelia. 2018. [https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/29461 Groundswell : Preparing for Internal Climate Migration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180322001911/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/29461 |date=22 March 2018 }}. World Bank, Washington, DC.</ref> In spite of the cumulative stressors and challenges faced by developing countries in adapting to the effects of climate change, there are those that are world leaders in the field such as [[Bangladesh]]. Bangladesh created a national programme in 2009 focused on [[Climate change in Bangladesh|how the country would adapt to climate change]] (the first country to do so).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gilbert |first1=Natasha |title=Bangladesh launches climate change action plan |journal=Nature |date=11 September 2008 |doi=10.1038/news.2008.1103 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Haq|first=Naimul|date=9 July 2019|title=Bangladesh global leader in fighting climate change|work=Bangladesh Post|url=https://bangladeshpost.net/|access-date=30 November 2020|archive-date=27 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127172829/https://bangladeshpost.net/|url-status=live}}</ref> It established a fund to support these plans, spending on average $1 billion annually in this regard.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Star Report|date=10 July 2019|title=Hamid for active role in climate change adaptation|work=The Daily Star|url=https://thedailystar.net/|access-date=30 November 2020|archive-date=30 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130091058/https://www.thedailystar.net/|url-status=live}}</ref> Many corporations have a higher chance of breaking environmental regulations when financial policies are uncertain. In the article "Economic growth and environmental sustainability in developing economies" written by Ahmed Imran Hunjra, Elie Bouri, Muhammad Azam, Rauf I. Azam, and Jiapeng Dai, they make the claim that businesses tend to cut corners during periods of financial uncertainty. “During uncertain economic conditions, businesses are likely to implement cost-cutting measures that compromise environmental standards. As a consequence, pollution increases as eco-friendly practices are replaced by less expensive alternatives” (p. 18). “FPU has additional cascading effects… policy paralysis; governments may be reluctant to enforce existing environmental regulations or implement new ones” (p. 18). We see that in these economic shock periods and recessions, businesses resort to cost cutting measures at the expense of the environment. In doing so, pollution will increase and result in harm to the environment overall. The term for this is Financial Policy Uncertainty (FPU) which is a big reason why many businesses might not always adopt the green way of conducting business. It might not be in their best financial interest and incur more costs to them. Eco-Friendly practices are not always the cheapest option and many businesses may opt for cheaper alternatives which would save them money but cause harm to the environment. Shocks to the economy slows down environmental progress.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hunjra |first1=Ahmed Imran |last2=Bouri |first2=Elie |last3=Azam |first3=Muhammad |last4=Azam |first4=Rauf I |last5=Dai |first5=Jiapeng |title=Economic growth and environmental sustainability in developing economies |journal=Research in International Business and Finance |date=June 2024 |volume=70 |pages=102341 |doi=10.1016/j.ribaf.2024.102341 }}</ref> ===Population growth=== {{See also|List of sovereign states and dependencies by total fertility rate}} [[File:Total Fertility Rate Map by Country.svg|thumb|Map of countries and territories by [[Total fertility rate|fertility rate]] as of 2020]] Over the last few decades, global population growth has largely been driven by developing countries, which often have higher [[birth rate]]s (higher [[fecundity]] rate) than developed countries. According to the United Nations, [[family planning]] can help to slow population growth and decrease poverty in these countries.<ref name="Population and poverty"/> The violent [[herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria]], the [[March 2019 attacks against Fulani herders]] in Mali, the [[Sudanese nomadic conflicts]] and other conflicts in the countries of the Sahel region have been exacerbated by climate change, [[land degradation]], and [[population growth]].<ref>{{cite magazine |title=How Climate Change Is Spurring Land Conflict in Nigeria |url=https://time.com/5324712/climate-change-nigeria/ |magazine=Time |date=28 June 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=The battle on the frontline of climate change in Mali |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/the-reporters-46921487 |work=BBC News |date=22 January 2019 |access-date=2 August 2019 |archive-date=9 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009175946/https://www.bbc.com/news/the-reporters-46921487 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=The Deadliest Conflict You've Never Heard of |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/nigeria/2019-01-23/deadliest-conflict-youve-never-heard |work=[[Foreign Policy]] |date=23 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218125507/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/nigeria/2019-01-23/deadliest-conflict-youve-never-heard |archive-date=18 February 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Droughts and food shortages have been also linked to the [[Northern Mali conflict]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/in-depth/sahel-flames-Burkina-Faso-Mali-Niger-militancy-conflict|title=The Sahel in flames|date=31 May 2019|website=The New Humanitarian|language=en|access-date=23 June 2019|archive-date=13 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113161848/https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/in-depth/sahel-flames-Burkina-Faso-Mali-Niger-militancy-conflict|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Climate change, food shortages, and conflict in Mali |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2015/04/climate-change-food-shortages-conflict-mali-150426105617725.html |work=Al-Jazeera |date=27 April 2015 |access-date=2 August 2019 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505190659/https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2015/4/27/climate-change-food-shortages-and-conflict-in-mali |url-status=live }}</ref> === Poor governance === Many developing countries are considered flawed democracies or authoritarian regimes by [[democracy indices]] such as the [[V-Dem Democracy indices]] and [[Democracy Index|Democracy Index (The Economist)]]. Following decolonization and independence, elites have often had [[Oligarchy|oligarchic]] control of the government.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} The establishment of a healthy democratic state has often been challenged by widespread [[corruption]] and [[nepotism]] and a low confidence and participation in democratic process. [[Political instability]] and [[political corruption]] are common problems.<ref>{{cite web|last=Williams|first=Jeremy|date=1 July 2007|title=Political factors that affect development|url=https://earthbound.report/2007/07/01/political-factors-that-affect-development/|access-date=20 June 2020|archive-date=21 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621060902/https://earthbound.report/2007/07/01/political-factors-that-affect-development/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Edwards, S. "Trade Orientation, Distortions and Growth In Developing Countries." (n.d.): n. pag. 1–37</ref> To fully reach the goal of a low level of corruption, developing countries are usually using special steps for different establishments inside their territories, such as: * Development or creation of a fair public administration system that is not partially based on corruption and is entirely based on the values and laws of the country * Better investigation towards the sources of the corruption and probable causes of that particular action * Publicly informing the residents about the source of corruption and negative influence on the country's economy * Regulation of the official positions of an individual to not be the source of abuse for corruption. * Creation of special laws dedicated to the corruption itself for specific establishments<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.am/files/docs/74.pdf |title=Republic of Armenia Anti-Corruption strategy and Implementation Action Plan |date=2003 |publisher=Republic of Armenia |access-date=16 February 2022 |archive-date=31 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110531195758/http://www.gov.am/files/docs/74.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === Others === Other common challenges include: Increased and intensified industrial and agricultural production and emission of toxic chemicals directly into the soil, air, and water, unsustainable use of energy resources; high dependency on natural resources for livelihood, leading to unsustainable exploitation or depletion of those resources; [[child marriage]], [[indebtedness]] (see [[Debt of developing countries]]) and underperforming [[civil service]] (see [[Civil service reform in developing countries]]), [[food insecurity]], [[Literacy|illiteracy]] and [[unemployment]]. The economies of many developing nations are tried to primary products and a majority of their exports go to advanced nations. When advanced nations encounter economic downturns, they can quickly transmit to their developing country trading partners as seen in global economic downturn of 2008–2009.
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