Editing Existence (section)

=== Eastern philosophy ===
{{main|Eastern philosophy}}
[[File:Raja Ravi Varma - Sankaracharya - cropped.png|thumb|left|upright=.7|alt=Painting of Adi Shankara|[[Adi Shankara]] taught that only the divine exists on the most fundamental level.]]

Many schools of thought in Eastern philosophy discuss the problem of existence and its implications. For instance, the ancient [[Hindu philosophy|Hindu]] school of [[Samkhya]] articulated a metaphysical dualism according to which the two types of existence are pure consciousness (''[[Purusha]]'') and matter (''[[Prakriti]]''). Samkhya explains the manifestation of the universe as the interaction between these two principles.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Leaman|2002|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_4crBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA77 77–78]}} |2={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=§ The Classical Period of Indian Philosophy}} |3={{harvnb|Ruzsa|2023|loc=Lead Section, §4. Metaphysics}} |4={{harvnb|Eraly|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA514 514–516]}} }}</ref> The [[Vedic]] philosopher [[Adi Shankara]] (c. 700–750 CE) developed a different approach in his school of [[Advaita Vedanta]]. Shankara defended a metaphysical monism by defining the divine (''[[Brahman]]'') as the ultimate reality and the only existent. According to this view, the impression that there is a universe consisting of many distinct entities is an illusion (''[[Maya (religion)|Maya]]'').<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=§ The Medieval Period of Indian Philosophy}} | {{harvnb|Dalal|2021|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Life and Works}} | {{harvnb|Menon|loc=Lead Section}}  | {{harvnb|Dalal|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA6 6]}}}}</ref> The essential features of ultimate reality are described as ''[[Sat Chit Ananda]]''—meaning existence, consciousness, and bliss.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Vanamali|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QGAoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT53 53–54]}} |2={{harvnb|Reddy|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tRveDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA110 110]}} |3={{harvnb|Sastry|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LXmUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT38 38]}} }}</ref>

A central doctrine in [[Buddhist philosophy]] is called the "[[three marks of existence]]", which are ''[[anicca|aniccā]]'' (impermanence), ''[[anattā]]'' (absence of a permanent self), and ''[[dukkha]]'' (suffering). ''Aniccā'' is the doctrine that all of existence is subject to change, meaning everything changes at some point and nothing lasts forever. ''Anattā'' expresses a similar state in relation to persons by stating that people do not have a permanent identity or a separate self. Ignorance about ''aniccā'' and ''anattā'' is seen as the main cause of ''dukkha'' by leading people to form attachments that cause suffering.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Smith|Worden|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8emELTpHWSEC&pg=PA18 18]}} |2={{harvnb|Gómez|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sQULdfIlBIYC&pg=PA110 110]}} |3={{harvnb|Allen|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tw2VCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA114 114]}} }}</ref>

[[File:Head of Laozi marble Tang Dynasty (618-906 CE) Shaanxi Province China.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|alt=Bust of Laozi|[[Laozi]] saw [[dao]] as a fundamental principle that constitutes the root of all existence.]]

A central idea in many schools of [[Chinese philosophy]], like [[Laozi]]'s (6th century BCE) [[Daoism]], is that a fundamental principle known as ''[[dao]]'' is the source of all existence. The term is often translated as "the way" and is understood as a cosmic force that governs the natural order of the world. Chinese metaphysicians debated whether ''dao'' is a form of being or whether, as the source of being, it belongs to non-being.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perkins|2019|loc=Lead Section, §3.1 Monism}} |2={{harvnb|EB staff|2017|loc=§ Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy}} |3={{harvnb|Wang|Bao|Guan|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gSfXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 6–8]}} |4={{harvnb|Blishen|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OtDcEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT7 7–8]}} }}</ref>

The concept of existence played a central role in [[Islamic philosophy|Arabic-Persian philosophy]]. The Islamic philosophers [[Avicenna]] (980–1037 CE) and [[Al-Ghazali]] (1058–1111 CE) discussed the relationship between existence and essence, and said the essence of an entity is prior to its existence. The additional step of instantiating the essence is required for the entity to come into existence. Philosopher [[Mulla Sadra]] (1571–1636 CE) rejected this priority of essence over existence, and said essence is only a concept that is used by the mind to grasp existence. Existence, by contrast, encompasses the whole of reality, according to his view.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Leaman|2002|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_4crBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA77 77–78]}} |2={{harvnb|DeGrood|1976|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3vYOp1AGpVUC&pg=PA37 37]}} |3={{harvnb|Dalal|2010a|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC&pg=PA41 41–42]}} }}</ref>