Editing Group 5 element (section)

== Production ==

=== Vanadium ===

Vanadium metal is obtained by a multistep process that begins with roasting crushed ore with [[sodium chloride|NaCl]] or [[sodium carbonate|Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>]] at about 850&nbsp;°C to give [[sodium metavanadate]] (NaVO<sub>3</sub>). An aqueous extract of this solid is acidified to produce "red cake", a polyvanadate salt, which is reduced with [[calcium]] metal. As an alternative for small-scale production, vanadium pentoxide is reduced with [[hydrogen]] or [[magnesium]]. Many other methods are also used, in all of which vanadium is produced as a [[byproduct]] of other processes.<ref name="Moskalyk">{{cite journal|journal= Minerals Engineering|volume= 16|pages= 793–805|doi= 10.1016/S0892-6875(03)00213-9|first= R. R.|last= Moskalyk|author2=Alfantazi, A. M. |title= Processing of vanadium: a review|date= 2003|issue= 9|bibcode= 2003MiEng..16..793M}}</ref> Purification of vanadium is possible by the [[crystal bar process]] developed by [[Anton Eduard van Arkel]] and [[Jan Hendrik de Boer]] in 1925. It involves the formation of the metal iodide, in this example [[vanadium(III) iodide]], and the subsequent decomposition to yield pure metal:<ref>{{cite journal|title= Preparation of High-Purity Vanadium Metals by the Iodide Refining Process|journal= Journal of the Electrochemical Society|volume= 108|page=88|date= 1961|first= O. N.|last= Carlson|author2=Owen, C. V. |doi= 10.1149/1.2428019}}</ref>
:2 V + 3 I<sub>2</sub> {{eqm}} 2 VI<sub>3</sub>

[[File:FerroVanadium.jpg|thumb|Ferrovanadium chunks]]

Most vanadium is used as a component of a [[steel]] alloy called [[ferrovanadium]]. Ferrovanadium is produced directly by reducing a mixture of vanadium oxide, iron oxides and iron in an electric furnace. The vanadium ends up in [[pig iron]] produced from vanadium-bearing magnetite. Depending on the ore used, the slag contains up to 25% of vanadium.<ref name="Moskalyk" />

Approximately 70000 [[tonnes]] of vanadium ore are produced yearly, with 25000 t of vanadium ore being produced in Russia, 24000 in [[South Africa]], 19000 in China, and 1000 in [[Kazakhstan]]. 7000 t of vanadium metal are produced each year. It is impossible to obtain vanadium by heating its ore with carbon. Instead, vanadium is produced by heating [[vanadium oxide]] with calcium in a [[pressure vessel]]. Very high-purity vanadium is produced from a reaction of [[vanadium trichloride]] with magnesium.<ref name = "Emsley"/>

=== Niobium and tantalum ===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right; float: right"
|+ Mine production of niobium (t)<ref name="USGSNiobi">{{cite web |author=Cunningham, Larry D. |url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/niobium/ |title=USGS Minerals Information: Niobium (Columbium) and Tantalum |publisher=Minerals.usgs.gov |date=5 April 2012 |access-date=17 August 2012 |archive-date=28 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128101220/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/niobium/ |url-status=live }}</ref> (USGS estimate)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/niobium-columbium-and-tantalum-statistics-and-information|title=Niobium (Columbium) and Tantalum Statistics and Information &#124; U.S. Geological Survey|access-date=2 December 2021|archive-date=6 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306043939/https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/niobium/mcs-2019-tanta.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Australia
! scope="col" | Brazil
! scope="col" | Canada
|-
! scope="row" | 2000
| 160
| 30,000
| 2,290
|-
! scope="row" | 2001
| 230
| 22,000
| 3,200
|-
! scope="row" | 2002
| 290
| 26,000
| 3,410
|-
! scope="row" | 2003
| 230
| 29,000
| 3,280
|-
! scope="row" | 2004
| 200
| 29,900
| 3,400
|-
! scope="row" | 2005
| 200
| 35,000
| 3,310
|-
! scope="row" | 2006
| 200
| 40,000
| 4,167
|-
! scope="row" | 2007
| {{Unknown}}
| 57,300
| 3,020
|-
! scope="row" | 2008
| {{Unknown}}
| 58,000
| 4,380
|-
! scope="row" | 2009
| {{Unknown}}
| 58,000
| 4,330
|-
! scope="row" | 2010
| {{Unknown}}
| 58,000
| 4,420
|-
! scope="row" | 2011
| {{Unknown}}
| 58,000
| 4,630
|-
! scope="row" | 2012
| {{Unknown}}
| 63,000
| 5,000
|-
! scope="row" | 2013
| {{Unknown}}
| 53,100
| 5,260
|-
! scope="row" | 2014
| {{Unknown}}
| 53,000
| 5,000
|-
! scope="row" | 2015
| {{Unknown}}
| 58,000
| 5,750
|-
! scope="row" | 2016
| {{Unknown}}
| 57,000
| 6,100
|-
! scope="row" | 2017
| {{Unknown}}
| 60,700
| 6,980
|-
! scope="row" | 2018
| {{Unknown}}
| 59,000
| 7,700
|-
! scope="row" | 2019
| {{Unknown}}
| 88,900
| 6,800
|}

After the separation from the other minerals, the [[mixed oxide]]s of tantalum [[tantalum pentoxide|{{chem2|Ta2O5}}]] and niobium [[Niobium pentoxide|{{chem2|Nb2O5}}]] are obtained. To produce niobium, the first step in the processing is the reaction of the oxides with [[hydrofluoric acid]]:<ref name="ICE" />

:{{chem2|Ta2O5 + 14 HF → 2 H2[TaF7] + 5 H2O}}
:{{chem2|Nb2O5 + 10 HF → 2 H2[NbOF5] + 3 H2O}}

The first industrial scale separation, developed by [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[chemist]] [[Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac|de Marignac]], exploits the differing [[Solubility|solubilities]] of the complex niobium and tantalum [[fluoride]]s, dipotassium oxypentafluoroniobate monohydrate ({{chem2|K2[NbOF5]*H2O}}) and dipotassium heptafluorotantalate ({{chem2|K2[TaF7]}}) in water. Newer processes use the liquid extraction of the fluorides from [[aqueous]] solution by [[organic solvents]] like [[cyclohexanone]].<ref name="ICE" /> The complex niobium and tantalum fluorides are extracted separately from the [[organic solvent]] with water and either precipitated by the addition of [[potassium fluoride]] to produce a potassium fluoride complex, or precipitated with [[ammonia]] as the pentoxide:<ref name="HollemanAF" />

:{{chem2|H2[NbOF5] + 2 KF → K2[NbOF5]↓ + 2 HF}}

Followed by:
:{{chem2|2 H2[NbOF5] + 10 NH4OH → Nb2O5↓ + 10 NH4F + 7 H2O}}

Several methods are used for the [[Reduction (chemistry)|reduction]] to metallic niobium. The [[electrolysis]] of a [[Molten salt|molten mixture]] of {{chem2|K2}}[{{chem2|NbOF5}}] and [[sodium chloride]] is one; the other is the reduction of the fluoride with [[sodium]]. With this method, a relatively high purity niobium can be obtained. In large scale production, {{chem2|Nb2O5}} is reduced with hydrogen or carbon.<ref name="HollemanAF" /> In the [[aluminothermic reaction]], a mixture of [[iron oxide]] and niobium oxide is reacted with [[aluminium]]:
:{{chem2|3 Nb2O5 + Fe2O3 + 12 Al → 6 Nb + 2 Fe + 6 Al2O3}}

Small amounts of oxidizers like [[sodium nitrate]] are added to enhance the reaction. The result is [[aluminium oxide]] and [[ferroniobium]], an alloy of iron and niobium used in steel production.<ref>{{cite book|title = Progress in Niobium Markets and Technology 1981–2001|author = Tither, Geoffrey|url = https://www.cbmm.com/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/images/pdfs/oppening.pdf|journal = Niobium Science & Technology: Proceedings of the International Symposium Niobium 2001 (Orlando, Florida, USA)|date = 2001|isbn = 978-0-9712068-0-9|editor = Minerals, Metals and Materials Society|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081217100553/http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/images/pdfs/oppening.pdf|archive-date = 17 December 2008|df = dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Production of Ferroniobium at the Niobec mine 1981–2001 |first=Claude |last=Dufresne |author2=Goyette, Ghislain |url=https://www.cbmm.com/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/sub_1/images/pdfs/start.pdf |journal=Niobium Science & Technology: Proceedings of the International Symposium Niobium 2001 (Orlando, Florida, USA) |date=2001 |isbn=978-0-9712068-0-9 |editor = Minerals, Metals and Materials Society |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217100559/http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/sub_1/images/pdfs/start.pdf |archive-date=17 December 2008 }}</ref> Ferroniobium contains between 60 and 70% niobium.<ref name="tesla">{{cite web|url = http://tesla.desy.de/new_pages/TESLA_Reports/2001/pdf_files/tesla2001-27.pdf|title = Niob für TESLA|access-date = 2 September 2008|first = J.|last = Kouptsidis|author2 = Peters, F.|author3 = Proch, D.|author4 = Singer, W.|publisher = Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY|language = de|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081217100548/http://tesla.desy.de/new_pages/TESLA_Reports/2001/pdf_files/tesla2001-27.pdf|archive-date = 17 December 2008|df = dmy-all}}</ref> Without iron oxide, the aluminothermic process is used to produce niobium. Further purification is necessary to reach the grade for [[superconductive]] alloys. [[Electron beam melting]] under vacuum is the method used by the two major distributors of niobium.<ref name="Aguly"/><ref name="Chou">{{cite journal|journal = The Iron and Steel Institute of Japan International|volume = 32|date = 1992|issue = 5|doi = 10.2355/isijinternational.32.673|title = Electron Beam Melting and Refining of Metals and Alloys|first = Alok|last = Choudhury|author2=Hengsberger, Eckart |pages = 673–681|doi-access = free}}</ref>

{{as of|2013}}, [[Companhia Brasileira de Metalurgia e Mineração|CBMM]] from Brazil controlled 85 percent of the world's niobium production.<ref name="lucchesi2013">{{Citation
 |last1=Lucchesi |first1=Cristane |last2=Cuadros|first2=Alex |date=April 2013 |title=Mineral Wealth |type=paper |magazine=[[Bloomberg Markets]] |page=14}}</ref> The [[United States Geological Survey]] estimates that the production increased from 38,700 tonnes in 2005 to 44,500{{Nbsp}}tonnes in 2006.<ref name="USGSCS2006">{{cite web |url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/niobium/colummcs06.pdf |title=Niobium (Columbium) |first=John F. |last=Papp |publisher=USGS 2006 Commodity Summary |access-date=20 November 2008 |archive-date=17 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217100548/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/niobium/colummcs06.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="USGSCS2007">{{cite web |url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/niobium/colummcs07.pdf |title=Niobium (Columbium) |first=John F. |last=Papp |publisher=USGS 2007 Commodity Summary |access-date=20 November 2008 |archive-date=5 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170805170910/https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/niobium/colummcs07.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Worldwide resources are estimated to be 4.4 million tonnes.<ref name="USGSCS2007" /> During the ten-year period between 1995 and 2005, the production more than doubled, starting from 17,800 tonnes in 1995.<ref name="USGSCS1997">{{cite web|url = http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/niobium/230397.pdf|title = Niobium (Columbium)|first = John F.|last = Papp|publisher = USGS 1997 Commodity Summary|access-date = 20 November 2008|archive-date = 11 January 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190111003407/https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/niobium/230397.pdf|url-status = live}}</ref> Between 2009 and 2011, production was stable at 63,000{{Nbsp}}tonnes per year,<ref>[http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/niobium/mcs-2011-niobi.pdf Niobium (Colombium)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120708152542/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/niobium/mcs-2011-niobi.pdf |date=8 July 2012 }} U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2011</ref> with a slight decrease in 2012 to only 50,000{{Nbsp}}tonnes per year.<ref>[http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/niobium/mcs-2016-niobi.pdf Niobium (Colombium)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306095041/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/niobium/mcs-2016-niobi.pdf |date=6 March 2016 }} U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2016</ref>

70,000{{Nbsp}}tonnes of tantalum ore are produced yearly. Brazil produces 90% of tantalum ore, with Canada, Australia, China, and [[Rwanda]] also producing the element. The demand for tantalum is around 1,200{{Nbsp}}tonnes per year.<ref name="Emsley" />

=== Dubnium and beyond ===
Dubnium is produced synthetically by bombarding [[actinides]] with lighter elements.<ref name = "Emsley"/> To date, no experiments in a [[Particle accelerator|supercollider]] have been conducted to [[synthetic element|synthesize]] the next member of the group, either unpentseptium (Ups) or unpentennium (Upe). As unpentseptium and unpentennium are both late [[period 8 element]]s, it is unlikely that these elements will be synthesized in the near future; current attempts have only been made on elements up to atomic number 127.<ref name="emsley">{{cite book |last=Emsley |first=John |title=Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-960563-7 |edition=New |location=New York, NY |page=588}}</ref>