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==Country-specific legal history== ===Belarus=== In 2005, President [[Alexander Lukashenko]] attempted to regulate "marriage agencies" in Belarus and make it difficult for them to operate. However, since he failed to address the economic problems which have been the root cause of the issue, he has been unable to stop (or otherwise regulate) this activity.<ref>[http://www.data.minsk.by/belarusnews/082005/100.html "Belarus News and Analysis"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060725073358/http://www.data.minsk.by/belarusnews/082005/100.html |date=25 July 2006 }}, Anna Volk</ref> ===Cambodia=== Thousands of women from Cambodia were mail-order brides to men in South Korea. Viewing the practice as a form of human trafficking, in the 21st century the Cambodian government passed a number of laws, such as prohibiting marriage between Cambodian women and men over the age of 50, a ban on marriage between Cambodian women and Korean men, and a ban on marriages with foreigners (which was rescinded after six months).{{r|zug|pp=197–198}} ===Canada=== Canadian [[immigration law]]s concerning mail-order brides have traditionally been similar to (but slightly less restrictive than) their U.S. counterparts; for instance, previously not requiring the Canadian citizen to prove minimum-income requirements (as has been a long-standing requirement of United States immigration laws). While there is still no formal requirement for a minimum salary, the sponsor must provide evidence of income (such as the T4 income tax slip from an employer) with their IMM 5481 Sponsorship Evaluation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/pdf/kits/forms/imm5481e.pdf|title=IMM 5481E: Sponsorship Evaluation|website=cic.gc.ca|access-date=4 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171031104755/http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/pdf/kits/forms/IMM5481E.pdf|archive-date=31 October 2017}}</ref> Until 2001 Canada's immigration policy designated mail-order brides under the "family class" to refer to spouses and dependents and "fiancé(e)" class for those intending to marry, with only limited recognition of externally married opposite-sex "common law" relationships; same-sex partners were processed as independent immigrants or under a discretionary provision for "humane and compassionate" considerations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.law.utoronto.ca/documents/globalization/Laviolette-PaperOct26.pdf|title=LaViolette – Immigration of Same-Sex Couples|website=utoronto.ca|access-date=4 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930175011/http://www.law.utoronto.ca/documents/globalization/Laviolette-PaperOct26.pdf|archive-date=30 September 2013}}</ref> In 2002, the Canadian Immigration Law was completely revised. One of the major changes was conjugal partner sponsorship, available for any two people (including [[Same-sex marriage|same-sex couple]]s) who have had conjugal relations, with "a significant degree of attachment" and "mutually interdependent relationship", for at least one year.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sponsor your spouse, common-law partner, conjugal partner or dependent child – Complete Guide (IMM 5289) |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/services/application/application-forms-guides/guide-5289-sponsor-your-spouse-common-law-partner-conjugal-partner-dependent-child-complete-guide.html |website=Government of Canada |date=18 July 2011 |access-date=25 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240723161449/https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/services/application/application-forms-guides/guide-5289-sponsor-your-spouse-common-law-partner-conjugal-partner-dependent-child-complete-guide.html |archive-date=23 July 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> There have been reported instances in which foreign spouses have abandoned their Canadian sponsors upon arrival in Canada or soon thereafter,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/cbsa-urged-to-act-on-marriage-fraud-complaints-1.1003655 |title=CBSA urged to act on marriage fraud complaints |publisher=CBC News |date=29 October 2011 |access-date=2013-03-30 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402055311/http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/story/2011/10/29/pol-marriage-fraud.html |archive-date=2013-04-02 }}</ref> often collecting welfare, which the sponsor is obligated to repay.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/russian-bride-leaves-elderly-man-with-25k-welfare-bill-1.1258077 |title=Russian bride leaves elderly man with $25K welfare bill |publisher=CBC British Columbia |date=22 October 2012 |access-date=2013-03-30 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130308094107/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/story/2012/10/19/bc-marriagebill.html |archive-date=2013-03-08 }}</ref> In some of the cases, federal immigration authorities have made no attempt to revoke fraudulently-obtained landed immigrant status or deport the claimants, treating cases where one spouse is duped by the other as low-priority and difficult to prove.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/b-c-woman-wants-fake-husband-deported-1.882409 |title=B.C. woman wants 'fake' husband deported |publisher=CBC British Columbia |date=14 June 2010 |access-date=2013-03-30 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130401232647/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/story/2010/06/14/bc-marriagefraud.html |archive-date=2013-04-01 }}</ref> A two-year conditional residence requirement (like that in force in Australia and the United States) was proposed in 2011 and is now applied to new arrivals.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gardner |first1=Simon |title=Foreign spouses face tighter rules in Canada |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/foreign-spouses-face-tighter-rules-in-canada-1.1244206 |access-date=8 November 2019 |publisher=CBC News |date=19 March 2012}}</ref> ===China=== China is one of the main source countries of East Asian mail-order brides. [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese women]] are traveling to China as mail-order brides for rural [[Han Chinese]] men to earn money for their families and a rise in the standard of living, matchmaking between Chinese men and Vietnamese women has increased and has not been affected by troubled relations between Vietnam and China.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thanhniennews.com/society/vietnamese-brides-happy-enough-with-chinese-husbands-30068.html|title=Vietnamese brides happy enough with Chinese husbands|date=19 August 2014|work=thanhniennews.com|access-date=1 February 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510210426/http://www.thanhniennews.com/society/vietnamese-brides-happy-enough-with-chinese-husbands-30068.html|archive-date=10 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shanghaidaily.com/feature/news-feature/Leftover-men-buy-brides-from-Vietnam/shdaily.shtml|title='Leftover' men buy brides from Vietnam|work=shanghaidaily.com|date=20 August 2014 |access-date=1 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510072715/http://www.shanghaidaily.com/feature/news-feature/Leftover-men-buy-brides-from-Vietnam/shdaily.shtml|archive-date=10 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/rural-chinese-men-are-buying-vietnamese-brides-for-3200-2014-8|title=Rural Chinese Men Are Buying Vietnamese Brides For $3,200|work=businessinsider.com|access-date=1 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170213010153/http://www.businessinsider.com/rural-chinese-men-are-buying-vietnamese-brides-for-3200-2014-8|archive-date=13 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1576383/joy-and-pain-vietnamese-brides-cash|title=Joy and pain of the Vietnamese 'brides for cash'|work=scmp.com|access-date=1 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510131806/http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1576383/joy-and-pain-vietnamese-brides-cash|archive-date=10 May 2017|date=18 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.yahoo.com/east-wed-china-seeks-brides-richer-poorer-040218390.html|title=The East is wed: China seeks brides for richer, for poorer|work=yahoo.com|access-date=1 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303095842/http://news.yahoo.com/east-wed-china-seeks-brides-richer-poorer-040218390.html|archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thestar.com.my/lifestyle/people/2014/08/22/seeking-vietnamese-brides/|title=Personals: Chinese men seek Vietnamese brides, will pay RM10,000, must relocate – People – The Star Online|first=Tom|last=Hancock|work=thestar.com.my|access-date=1 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510135529/http://www.thestar.com.my/lifestyle/people/2014/08/22/seeking-vietnamese-brides/|archive-date=10 May 2017|date=22 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://kenh14.vn/the-gioi/cuoc-song-cua-co-dau-viet-tai-thi-tran-ngheo-o-trung-quoc-20140818075811320.chn|title=Cuộc sống của cô dâu Việt tại thị trấn nghèo ở Trung Quốc|last=VCCorp.vn|work=kenh14.vn|access-date=1 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160619051818/http://kenh14.vn/the-gioi/cuoc-song-cua-co-dau-viet-tai-thi-tran-ngheo-o-trung-quoc-20140818075811320.chn|archive-date=19 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinasmack.com/2010/stories/chinese-man-spends-35k-for-obedient-vietnamese-wife.html|title=Chinese Man Spends 35K For 'Obedient' Vietnamese Wife|date=31 January 2010|work=chinasmack.com|access-date=1 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160926151310/http://www.chinasmack.com/2010/stories/chinese-man-spends-35k-for-obedient-vietnamese-wife.html|archive-date=26 September 2016}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=March 2025}} Some Vietnamese women from [[Lào Cai]] who married [[Han Chinese]] men stated that among their reasons for doing so was that Vietnamese men beat their wives, engaged in affairs with mistresses, and refused to help their wives with chores while Han men actively helped their wives carry out chores and care for them.<ref>{{cite book|author=Yuk Wah Chan|title=Vietnamese-Chinese Relationships at the Borderlands: Trade, Tourism and Cultural Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cjoVAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|date=12 November 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-49457-6}}, p. 113.</ref> [[Khmer people|Cambodian women]] also travel to China as mail order brides for rural men.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/caixin-media/chinese-towns-imported-cambodian-brides|title=A Chinese Town's Imported Cambodian Brides|date=19 August 2014|work=chinafile.com|access-date=1 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161110145246/http://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/caixin-media/chinese-towns-imported-cambodian-brides|archive-date=10 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldcrunch.com/culture-society/the-cambodian-brides-of-china/immigration-cambodian-brides-matchmakers-weddings/c3s16538/ |title=The Cambodian Brides of China |access-date=2016-02-21 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307042433/http://www.worldcrunch.com/culture-society/the-cambodian-brides-of-china/immigration-cambodian-brides-matchmakers-weddings/c3s16538/ |archive-date=2016-03-07 }}</ref> In the majority of cases, young women are persuaded by friends and relatives with an offer, and at least 5 percent of Vietnamese women in marriages to Chinese men are victims of human trafficking.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Li |first=Wei |title=Matching Vietnamese brides with Chinese men, marriage brokers find good business – and sometimes love |url=http://theconversation.com/matching-vietnamese-brides-with-chinese-men-marriage-brokers-find-good-business-and-sometimes-love-127977 |access-date=2022-07-13 |website=The Conversation |date=10 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref> There is no established bilateral cooperation between China and Vietnam to deal with the problematic aspects of undocumented, transnational marriages, since the Chinese marriage market crisis has been significantly alleviated by female immigrants. Despite prohibition, illegal border crossing and de facto marriage are common and uncontrollable.<ref>Liang, Maochun, and Chen, Wen. "[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273313260_Transnational_Undocumented_Marriages_in_the_Sino-Vietnamese_Border_Areas_of_China Transnational Undocumented Marriages in the Sino-Vietnamese Border Areas of China]." ''Jinan University''. Retrieved on 13 July 2022.</ref> ===Colombia=== According to immigration statistics from the [[United States Department of Homeland Security]], Colombia has ranked in the top 10 of countries since 1999 from which fiancées have emigrated for the United States. As well, the number of Colombians being admitted to the United States between 1999 and 2008 using fiancé visas (including children) has increased 321 percent.<ref>[https://www.dhs.gov/ximgtn/statistics] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061031224007/https://www.dhs.gov/ximgtn/statistics|date=31 October 2006}}</ref> A dissertation by Jasney E. Cogua-Lopez, "Through the Prisms of Gender and Power: Agency in International Courtship between Colombian Women and American Men", suggests various reasons for this growth, including continuing cultural inequality between the sexes despite equality being codified in the country's laws ([[honor killing]]s were not made completely illegal until 1980).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1189&context=etd |title=Through the Prisms of Gender and Power: Agency in International Courtship between Colombian Women and American Men |access-date=2012-05-24 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130406185759/http://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1189&context=etd |archive-date=2013-04-06 }}</ref> Because of the large number of Colombians wishing to leave their country by marrying foreigners, a [[black market]] for marriages to foreigners has developed, with some people allegedly paying as much as 20 million pesos ($10,000) to illegal groups.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://colombiareports.com/colombia-news/news/7021-colombians-marry-foreigners-seeking-other-nationalities.html |title=Colombians seeking new nationalities marry foreigners – Colombia news |publisher=Colombia Reports |date=24 November 2009 |access-date=2013-03-30 |url-status=live |archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20130330143334/http://colombiareports.com/colombia-news/news/7021-colombians-marry-foreigners-seeking-other-nationalities.html |archive-date=2013-03-30 }}</ref> According to Colombia Decrees No. 2668/88 and 1556/89, passed in 1988, foreigners are allowed to marry nationals in the country provided they supply the proper paperwork, including a birth certificate and proof that both parties are not already married. A notary is required, but because the laws are open to interpretation, the requirements can vary from notary to notary.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bogota.usembassy.gov/marriage.html |title=Marriage in Colombia |publisher=Embassy of the United States – Bogota |date=27 November 2012 |access-date=2013-03-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130327103103/http://bogota.usembassy.gov/marriage.html |archive-date=2013-03-27 }}</ref> ===Japan=== {{Main|Asian migrant brides in Japan}} During the 1980s and 1990s, local authorities started government-led initiatives encouraging marriage between women from other Asian countries and Japanese farmers due to the lack of Japanese women who wanted to live in the countryside.<ref name="Japansource">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JImIBAAAQBAJ |title=Transformation of the Intimate and the Public in Asian Modernity |date= 12 August 2014|publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004264359 }}</ref> These Asian brides came from the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, China and South Korea.<ref name="Japansource"/> The phenomenon of marrying women from other Asian countries later spread to urban parts of Japan as well.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/04/12/world/yodo-journal-where-want-ads-are-bait-and-weddings-forced.html|title=Yodo Journal; Where Want Ads Are Bait and Weddings Forced|date=14 April 1991|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> ===Philippines=== The Philippines prohibits the business of organizing or facilitating marriages between Filipinas and foreign men. The Philippine congress enacted the [[Anti Mail-Order Bride Law]] on 13 June 1990, as a result of stories in the local media about Filipinas being abused by their foreign husbands. Because of this, Filipinas often used "reverse publications" – publications in which ''men'' advertise themselves – to contact foreign men for marriage to Filipina women. Successful prosecution under this statute is rare or non-existent<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KzhEUE35pRcC&pg=PA103 |title=Trafficking And the Global Sex Industry |access-date=2013-04-16|isbn=9780739113134 |last1=Beeks |first1=Karen |last2=Amir |first2=Delila |year=2006 |publisher=Lexington Books }}</ref> as widespread deployment of the Internet in the mid-1990s brought a proliferation of websites operating outside the Philippines which legally remain beyond the reach of Filipino law. One [[Montana]] site profiled in an [[ABS-CBN News and Current Affairs]] report entitled "Pinay Brides" circumvented the restrictions by characterising its role as that of a [[travel agency]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=muPfQjYP-0IC&pg=PA55 |title=Romance on a Global Stage: Pen Pals, Virtual Ethnography, and "Mail-Order Brides" |author=Nicole Constable |date=19 August 2003 |publisher=University of California Press |access-date=2013-04-16|isbn=9780520937222 }}</ref> Thousands of Filipina women marry Americans each year.<ref>{{cite news |author=Mae Ryan |title=Imported Filipino brides share the ups and downs of settling in America |url=http://www.scpr.org/programs/offramp/2012/09/26/28576/imported-filipino-brides-settle-into-love-in-south/ |newspaper=SCPR |date=26 September 2012 |access-date=9 December 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325113706/http://www.scpr.org/programs/offramp/2012/09/26/28576/imported-filipino-brides-settle-into-love-in-south/ |archive-date=25 March 2015 }}</ref> ===South Korea=== ''[[The New York Times]]'' reports, "Every month, hundreds of South Korean men fly to Vietnam, the Philippines, Nepal and Uzbekistan on special trips. An agent escorts each man to see many women in a single day, sometimes all gathered in the same hall".<ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/24/world/asia/foreign-brides-challenge-south-korean-prejudices.html|title=Foreign brides challenge South Korean prejudices|first=Choe|last=Sang-Hun|date=24 June 2005|access-date=4 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161112060708/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/24/world/asia/foreign-brides-challenge-south-korean-prejudices.html|archive-date=12 November 2016|newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref> Although these marriages can be successful, in some cases immigrant wives are mistreated, misunderstood and separated from their Korean husbands.<ref name="nytimes.com"/> One method men use when choosing young girls as wives is "Like a judge in a beauty pageant, the man interviews the women, many of them 20 years younger than he, and makes a choice".<ref name="nytimes.com"/> The British newspaper ''The Independent'' reports, "Last year it was reported that more than 40,000 Vietnamese women have married South Korean men and migrated there."<ref name="independent.co.uk">{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/mailorder-bride-killed-by-husband-2028705.html|title=Mail-order bride killed by husband|work=The Independent|access-date=8 May 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925184329/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/mailorder-bride-killed-by-husband-2028705.html|archive-date=25 September 2015}}</ref> Cambodian women are also popular with Korean men seeking foreign brides, but in March 2010 the Cambodian government banned marriages to South Korean men.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2010/03/22/2010032200462.html|title=The Chosun Ilbo (English Edition): Daily News from Korea – Cambodia Bans Marriage to Korean Men|access-date=8 May 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150304233133/http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2010/03/22/2010032200462.html|archive-date=4 March 2015}}</ref> ''[[The Korea Times]]'' reports that every year, thousands of Korean men sign up for matches with Filipina brides through agencies and by mail order. Based on data from the Korean government, there are 6,191 Filipinas in South Korea who are married to Koreans.<ref>[https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2009/10/211_53320.html koreatimes.co.kr] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170201072334/http://koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2009/10/211_53320.html/ |date=1 February 2017 }} This is only the women from the Philippines.</ref> After contacting a mail-order agency, the majority of Filipina mail-order brides met their husbands by attending "show-ups", a meeting in which a group of Filipina women are brought to meet a Korean man who is looking for a wife. At the show-up the Korean man picks a prospective wife from among the group, and in a matter of days they are married.<ref name="The Korea Times">{{cite web|url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2009/10/211_53320.html|title=Filipina Mail-Order Brides Vulnerable to Abuse|date=11 October 2009|work=[[The Korea Times]]|access-date=1 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170201072334/http://koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2009/10/211_53320.html/|archive-date=1 February 2017}}</ref> An anthropological study on Filipina wives and Korean men by professor Kim Min-jung of the Department of Cultural Anthropology at Kangwon National University found that these Korean men find it difficult to marry Korean women, so they look for girls in poorer countries with difficult economic circumstances.<ref name="The Korea Times"/> The Korean men feel that because of the difficult circumstances from which the Filipina women come, cultural differences and the language barrier, they "will not run away". Further, she said, Korean men characterize Southeast Asian women as friendly, hardworking (due to agrarian backgrounds), "docile and obedient, able to speak English, and are familiar with Korean patriarchal culture".<ref name="The Korea Times"/> A recent study by matchmaking firm Bien-Aller polled 274 single South Korean men through its website concerning motivations for marrying non-Korean women and found that men choose foreign brides primarily for one of four reasons. "According to the poll, 32.1 percent of the men said they felt the biggest benefit of marrying foreign women is their lack of interest in their groom's educational background and financial or social status. The next best reason was their belief that foreign brides would be submissive (23 percent), make their lives more comfortable (15.3 percent), and that the men would not have to get stressed about their in-laws (13.8 percent)."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2012/10/18/2012101800458.html |title=Why Korean Men Marry Foreign Women |publisher=The Chosun Ilbo (English Edition) |date=18 October 2012 |access-date=2013-03-30 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130315032100/http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2012/10/18/2012101800458.html |archive-date=2013-03-15 }}</ref> The majority of mail order brides from China to South Korea consist of [[Koreans in China|Chinese citizens of Korean ethnicity]].<ref name="ChoSurendra2012">{{cite book|author1=Hee-Yeon Cho|author2=Lawrence Surendra|author3=Hyo-Je Cho|title=Contemporary South Korean Society: A Critical Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q9XaiW7R4NkC&q=chinese+korean+south+korean+marriage&pg=PA24|date=12 November 2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-19128-2|pages=24–}}</ref><ref name="Kim2010">{{cite book|author=Hyejin Kim|title=International Ethnic Networks and Intra-Ethnic Conflict: Koreans in China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CZ3IAAAAQBAJ&q=chinese+korean+south+korean+marriage&pg=PA175|date=8 June 2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-10772-4|pages=175–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Sounds of Chinese Korean: A Variationist Approach|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d513kLszf0AC&q=chinese+korean+south+korean+marriage&pg=PA13|year=2008|isbn=978-0-549-64819-2|pages=13–}}</ref><ref name="Chʻoe2003">{{cite book|author=In-bŏm Chʻoe|title=The Korean Diaspora in the World Economy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3twZUkqE5NkC&q=chinese+korean+south+korean+marriage&pg=PA116|date=1 January 2003|publisher=Peterson Institute|isbn=978-0-88132-358-0|pages=116–}}</ref><ref name="NaerssenSpaan2008">{{cite book|author1=Ton van Naerssen|author2=Ernst Spaan|author3=Annelies Zoomers|title=Global Migration and Development|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zGOUAgAAQBAJ&q=china+ethnic+korean+brides+south+korea&pg=PA271|date=13 February 2008|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-89630-0|pages=271–}}</ref><ref name="PalmerRoberts2011">{{cite book|author1=John D. Palmer|author2=Amy Roberts|author3=Young Ha Cho|author4=Gregory S. Ching|title=The Internationalization of East Asian Higher Education: Globalization's Impact|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fQLHAAAAQBAJ&q=china+ethnic+korean+brides+south+korea&pg=PA100|date=9 November 2011|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-137-00200-6|pages=100–}}</ref><ref name="Constable2010">{{cite book|author=Nicole Constable|title=Cross-Border Marriages: Gender and Mobility in Transnational Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZtSe2-sr_EC&q=chinese+korean+south+korean+marriage&pg=PA107|date=3 August 2010|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-0064-5|pages=107–}}</ref><ref name="Steinberg2010">{{cite book|author=David I Steinberg|title=Korea's Changing Roles in Southeast Asia: Expanding Influence and Relations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PnVF8G9rCjcC&q=china+ethnic+korean+brides+south+korea&pg=PA316|year=2010|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-230-969-3|pages=316–}}</ref><ref name="YangLu2010">{{cite book|author1=Wen-Shan Yang|author2=Melody Chia-Wen Lu|title=Asian Cross-border Marriage Migration: Demographic Patterns and Social Issues|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mC6nKkhwrjwC&q=chinese+korean+yanbian+ethnic++liaoning+brides&pg=PA135|year=2010|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|isbn=978-90-8964-054-3|pages=135–}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.nottingham.ac.uk/chinapolicyinstitute/2014/02/10/chinese-foreign-marriage-in-mainland-china/|title=Chinese-foreign Marriage in Mainland China|date=10 February 2014|work=nottingham.ac.uk|access-date=1 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20170202054644/http://blogs.nottingham.ac.uk/chinapolicyinstitute/2014/02/10/chinese-foreign-marriage-in-mainland-china/|archive-date=2 February 2017}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=March 2025}} ====Violence against foreign brides in South Korea==== In June 2013, The Philippine embassy in Seoul reported that it had received many complaints from Filipinas who have married Korean men through mail-order, frequently becoming "victims of grave abuses".<ref name="abs-cbnnews.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/global-filipino/06/27/13/philippines-rescues-29-mail-order-brides-south-korea|title=Philippines rescues 29 mail-order brides to South Korea|agency=Agence France-Presse|work=abs-cbnnews.com|date=27 June 2013|access-date=1 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130701030759/http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/global-filipino/06/27/13/philippines-rescues-29-mail-order-brides-south-korea|archive-date=1 July 2013}}</ref> The Philippine police rescued 29 mail-order brides on their way to marry South Korea men whom Chief Superintendent Reginald Villasanta, head of an organised crime task force, says were "duped into promises of an instant wealthy life through marriage with Korean gentlemen". The women were advertised in online and offline "catalogs" to South Korean men. In many cases however, victims were fed false information about the background of their future spouse and family, and suffered abuse from the South Korean men, which led to "abandonment of the marital home, separation and divorce", Villasanta said.<ref name="abs-cbnnews.com"/> There have been several murders of mail-order brides in South Korea. On 24 May 2011, one South Korean man "stabbed his Vietnamese wife to death while the couple's 19-day-old baby lay next to her. The man, a farmer, had been matched up with his foreign bride through a broker. In 2010, another Vietnamese woman was killed by her husband a week after they were married. In 2008, a Vietnamese woman jumped from an apartment building to her death after being abused by her husband and mother-in-law."<ref name="independent.co.uk"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/asia-pacific/south-korea/110601/vietnam-integration-foreign-brides?page=0,0|title=For better or worse: foreign brides in South Korea|work=GlobalPost|access-date=8 May 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017094131/http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/asia-pacific/south-korea/110601/vietnam-integration-foreign-brides?page=0,0|archive-date=17 October 2015}}</ref> In November 2009, Philippine Ambassador to South Korea Luis T. Cruz warned Filipina women against marrying Korean men. He said in recent months that the Philippine Embassy in Seoul has received complaints from Filipina wives of abuses committed by their Korean husbands that caused separation, divorce and abandonment.<ref name="The Korea Times"/><ref>[http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/pinoy-migration/11/22/09/korea-–-pinoy-mixed-marriages-and-tensions-multicultural-family abs-cbnnews.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402162906/http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/pinoy-migration/11/22/09/korea-%E2%80%93-pinoy-mixed-marriages-and-tensions-multicultural-family |date=2 April 2013 }}</ref> As language and cultural differences become an issue, the Filipina women are regarded as commodities bought for a price.<ref name="The Korea Times"/> === Malaysia === Mail-order brides travelled to Malaysia to marry Malaysian men. Mail-order brides include women from Vietnam, Indonesia, and China.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hamid|first=Rashitha A.|title='Mail-order brides' leave Malaysian hubbies in a tight spot|url=https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2013/07/03/mailorder-brides-leave-malaysian-hubbies-in-a-tight-spot|access-date=2021-10-03|website=The Star|date=3 July 2013 |language=en}}</ref> ===Singapore=== Singapore has received Vietnamese women as mail order brides.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://tnp.straitstimes.com/news/singapore-news/viet-woman-saves-year-fly-singapore-hope-finding-husband |title=Viet woman saves up for a year to fly to Singapore in hope of finding a husband |last1=TAN |first1=JUDITH |date=20 September 2015 |newspaper=the new paper |access-date=15 July 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011113551/http://www.tnp.sg/news/singapore-news/viet-woman-saves-year-fly-singapore-hope-finding-husband |archive-date=11 October 2016 }}</ref> ===Taiwan=== {{Main|Vietnamese migrant brides in Taiwan}} Vietnamese and Uzbek mail order brides have gone to Taiwan for marriage.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-brides-taiwan-idUSTP5166420070505|title=Taiwan men seek mail-order brides from Vietnam|date=5 May 2017|access-date=1 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170310061108/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-brides-taiwan-idUSTP5166420070505|archive-date=10 March 2017|newspaper=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/05/the-plight-of-vietnams-mail-order-brides/257814/|title=The Plight of Vietnam's 'Mail-Order' Brides|first=Andrew|last=Billo|work=theatlantic.com|access-date=1 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511114917/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/05/the-plight-of-vietnams-mail-order-brides/257814/|archive-date=11 May 2017|date=30 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pov4sPw8mg8|title=烏茲別克女傳統 工程師娶妻滿意|last=中華電視公司|date=20 May 2010|access-date=1 February 2017|via=YouTube|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811010855/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pov4sPw8mg8|archive-date=11 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LiljqUPmqoo|title=烏茲別克美女 百萬優生新娘|date=20 May 2010|access-date=1 February 2017|via=YouTube|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170704063036/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LiljqUPmqoo|archive-date=4 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PoRf3Jjts0Y|title=花150萬娶烏茲別克新娘 回台如「老佛爺」|last=中時電子報|date=13 October 2011|access-date=1 February 2017|via=YouTube|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713171140/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PoRf3Jjts0Y|archive-date=13 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4ZvzcAkldPk|title=自認被歧視 烏茲別克妻揮刀掐女店員頸|last=TomoNews 台灣|date=8 May 2013|access-date=1 February 2017|via=YouTube|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709053823/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4ZvzcAkldPk|archive-date=9 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=11 July 2014|title=Behind the smiles of Vietnam's flight attendants|url=http://tuoitrenews.vn/features/23880/behind-the-smiles-of-vietnams-flight-attendants|newspaper=Tuoi Tre|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160713212640/http://tuoitrenews.vn/features/23880/behind-the-smiles-of-vietnams-flight-attendants|archive-date=13 July 2016}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=March 2025}} Domestic violence and other problems that Vietnamese women faced during the marriages in Taiwan.<ref>{{Cite web |title='He beat me when I was pregnant' – Vietnamese marriage migrants and domestic violence in Taiwan |url=https://womenandmigration.com/case-study/taiwan/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126155501/https://womenandmigration.com/case-study/taiwan/ |url-status=usurped |archive-date=26 November 2021 |access-date=2022-07-13 |website=Women & Migration |language=en-US}}</ref> ===Turkmenistan=== On 4 June 2001, Turkmenian President [[Saparmurat Niyazov]] (also known as Turkmenbashi) authorized a decree that required foreigners to pay a $50,000 fee to marry a Turkmen citizen (regardless of how they met), and to live in the country and own property for one year. Authorities indicated that the law was designed to protect women from being duped into abusive relationships.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav061901.shtml|title=Turkmenistan's Marriage Decree Helps Deepen the Isolation of Citizens|work=EurasiaNet.org|access-date=8 May 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017094131/http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav061901.shtml|archive-date=17 October 2015}}</ref> In June 2005, Niyazov scrapped the $50,000 and the property-owning requirements.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2005/06/c2984fe7-fbca-4bc1-98d3-d5d4b42bfded.html|title=Turkmenistan: Marriage Gets Cheaper As Turkmenbashi Drops $50,000 Dollar Foreigners' Fee|work=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty|date=8 April 2008 |access-date=8 May 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706085749/http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2005/06/c2984fe7-fbca-4bc1-98d3-d5d4b42bfded.html|archive-date=6 July 2008|last1=Saidazimova |first1=Gulnoza }}</ref> ===United States=== {{Citations needed section|date=March 2025}} U.S. immigration law provides protection for brides once they arrive. "In 1996, Congress passed the Illegal Immigration Reform and Responsibility Act... Section 652 of this legislation specifically addresses the mail-order bride industry".<ref name="Order Bride Case Study 2010">"Russian Mail Order Bride Case Study." Welcome to American University, Washington, DC USA. Web. 10 October 2010.</ref> On 6 January 2006, President [[George W. Bush]] signed the [[International Marriage Broker Regulation Act]] (IMBRA) as part of the [[Violence Against Women Act]].<ref>[http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h109-3402 "Violence against women"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204043909/http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h109-3402 |date=4 February 2012 }}, 109th U.S. Congress (2005–2006)</ref> In enacting IMBRA, Congress was responding to claims by the [[Tahirih Justice Center]] (TJC), a woman's advocacy group, that mail-order brides were susceptible to domestic abuse because they are unfamiliar with the laws, language and customs of their new home. The TJC insisted that special legislation was needed to protect them.<ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/07/05/politics/main561828.shtml "Mail Order Bride in Works"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615130356/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/07/05/politics/main561828.shtml |date=15 June 2006}}, CBS News 5 July 2003</ref> The TJC asked Congress to consider several notable cases mentioned in the [[Congressional Record]]. Critics of IMBRA claim that the TJC failed to ask Congress to consider the relative amount of abuse between mail-order bride couples and other couples (including the thousands of spousal murders that occurred in the US over the past 15 years). Two federal lawsuits (''European Connections & Tours v. Gonzales'', N.D. Ga. 2006; ''AODA v. Gonzales'', S.D. Ohio 2006) sought to challenge IMBRA on constitutional grounds. The AODA case was terminated when the plaintiffs withdrew their claim. The European Connections case ended when the judge ruled against the plaintiff, finding the law constitutional regarding a dating company. On 26 March 2007, U.S. District Judge [[Clarence Cooper (judge)|Clarence Cooper]] dismissed with [[prejudice (legal term)|prejudice]] a suit for injunctive relief filed by European Connections, agreeing with Attorney General [[Alberto Gonzales]] and TJC that IMBRA is a constitutional exercise of Congressional authority to regulate for-profit dating websites and agencies where the primary focus is on introducing Americans to foreigners. Additionally, the federal court specifically found that: "the rates of domestic violence against immigrant women are much higher than those of the U.S. population". According to a compilation of disaggregated samples of Asian ethnicities from local communities, Asian women in the United States reported intimate physical and/or sexual violence of 21 to 55 percent in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 October 2020 |title=Facts & Stats Report: Domestic Violence in Asian and Pacific Islander Homes, 2020 |url=https://www.api-gbv.org/resources/facts-stats-dv-api-homes/ |access-date=2022-07-13 |website=Asian Pacific Institute on Gender Based Violence Website |language=en-US}}</ref> The judge also compared background checks on American men to background checks on [[firearm]] buyers by stating, "However, just as the requirement to provide background information as a prerequisite to purchasing a firearm has not put gun manufacturers out of business, there is no reason to believe that IMBs will be driven from the marketplace by IMBRA". ====Legal issues==== {{How-to|section|date=June 2023}} Marriage agencies are legal in almost all countries. On 6 January 2006, the United States Congress enacted [[IMBRA]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h109-3402|title=Violence Against Women and Department of Justice Reauthorization Act of 2005 (2006; 109th Congress H.R. 3402) – GovTrack.us|work=GovTrack.us|access-date=8 May 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204043909/http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h109-3402|archive-date=4 February 2012}}</ref> which requires certain actions of some businesses prior to selling a foreign woman's address to a US citizen or resident or otherwise facilitating contact, including the following: *The man must complete a questionnaire on his criminal and marital background *The business must obtain the man's record from the [[United States National Sex Offenders Public Registry]] database<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nsopr.gov/|title=United States Department of Justice National Sex Offender Public Website|author=NSOPW|access-date=8 May 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140505234611/http://www.nsopr.gov/|archive-date=5 May 2014}}</ref> *The questionnaire and record must be translated into the woman's native language and provided to her *The woman must certify that she agrees to permit communication *A lifetime limit of two [[K-1 visa]]s is imposed, with a waiver required for the approval of any subsequent fiancée visa =====Visa regulations===== To bring a spouse into the United States, Form I-130 must be filed, which is an immigrant petition on behalf of a relative. After that, a K-3/K-4 & V-1/V-2 Entry Visa for Spouse must be filed.<ref>"Apply for Green Card Through Marriage." Apply for US Immigration Services: USCIS, Green Card, US Citizenship, US Visas, Forms. Immigration Direct, 2007–2010. Web. 12 November 2010.</ref> The Immigration and Nationalization Service advises that "in some cases, it may be to a couple's advantage to pursue a [[K visa|K-1 fiancée visa]] before getting married. In other cases, applicants may find that it is more cost effective to get married abroad and then apply for an immigrant visa overseas. In many cases, the K-1 visa application process takes just as long as the immigrant visa process". The cost of the visa may be around $2000.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://brightbrides.org/blog/how-to-get-a-visa-for-a-foreign-wife | title=How To Get A Visa For A Foreign Wife| date=17 May 2020}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=June 2023}} Couples must remain together at least two years. There were 849,000 female naturalized citizens between the ages of 20 and 29 and 2,084,000 women of the same age living without U.S. citizenship in 2016, accounting for 13.3% of the female population of that age bracket.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.census.gov/topics/population/foreign-born/data/tables.2016.html | title=Foreign Born Data Tables}}</ref> "Despite well over 2,000 mail-order marriages a year, there is no information on the amount of mail-order brides entering the United States. The purpose of this law is two-fold: to protect the safety of mail-order brides and to prevent fraud".<ref name="Order Bride Case Study 2010" />
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