Editing Multiculturalism (section)

==Europe==
[[File:Austria Hungary ethnic.svg|thumb|upright|Ethno-linguistic map of [[Austria-Hungary]], 1910]]

[[File:Poland1937linguistic.jpg|thumb|upright|Ethno-linguistic map of the [[Second Polish Republic]], 1937]]

Historically, [[Europe]] has always been a mixture of Latin, Slavic, Germanic, Uralic, Celtic, Hellenic, Illyrian, Thracian and other cultures influenced by the importation of Jewish, Christian, Muslim and other belief systems; although the continent was supposedly unified by the super-position of [[Christianity as the Roman state religion|Imperial Roman Christianity]], it is accepted that geographic and cultural differences continued from antiquity into the modern age.<ref name="OstergrenBossé2011">{{cite book|author1=Robert C. Ostergren|author2=Mathias Le Bossé|title=The Europeans: A Geography of People, Culture, and Environment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y-1fwix23zMC&pg=PA226|date=7 March 2011|publisher=Guilford Press|isbn=978-1-59385-384-6|page=226}}</ref>

In the nineteenth century, the ideology of [[nationalism]] transformed the way [[Europeans]] thought about the [[State (polity)|state]].<ref name="OstergrenBossé2011" /> Existing states were broken up and new ones created; the new [[nation-states]] were founded on the principle that each nation is entitled to its own [[sovereignty]] and to engender, protect, and preserve its own unique culture and history. Unity, under this ideology, is seen as an essential feature of the nation and the nation-state; unity of descent, unity of culture, unity of language, and often unity of religion. The nation-state constitutes a culturally [[wikt:Homogeneity|homogeneous]] society, although some national movements recognised regional differences.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Conversi|first=Daniele|date=2007|title=Homogenisation, nationalism and war: Should we still read Ernest Gellner?|journal=Nations and Nationalism|volume=13|issue=3|pages=371–394|doi=10.1111/j.1469-8129.2007.00292.x}}</ref>

Where cultural unity was insufficient, it was encouraged and enforced by the state.<ref name="Kaplan" /> The nineteenth century nation-states developed an array of policies – the most important was compulsory primary education in the [[national language]].<ref name="Kaplan">{{cite book|author1=Guntram Henrik Herb |author2=David H. Kaplan |title=Nations and Nationalism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2UoQ-ueHjdEC&pg=PA522|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-907-8|page=522|date=22 May 2008}}</ref> The language itself was often standardised by a linguistic academy, and regional languages were ignored or suppressed. Some nation-states pursued violent policies of [[cultural assimilation]] and even [[ethnic cleansing]].<ref name="Kaplan" />

Some countries in the [[European Union]] have introduced policies for "social cohesion", "integration", and (sometimes) "assimilation". The policies include:

* Compulsory courses and/or tests on [[historiography and nationalism|national history]], on the constitution and the [[legal system]] (e.g., the computer-based test for individuals seeking naturalisation in the UK named [[Life in the United Kingdom test]])
* Introduction of an official national history, such as the national [[Canon of the Netherlands|canon]] defined for the [[Netherlands]] by the [[Frits van Oostrom|van Oostrom]] Commission,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.entoen.nu/ |title=Official Web site |publisher=Entoen.nu |access-date=10 December 2010}}</ref> and promotion of that history (e.g., by exhibitions about [[Folk hero|national heroes]])
* Tests designed to elicit "unacceptable" values. In [[Baden-Württemberg]], immigrants are asked what they would do if their son says he is a homosexual (the desired answer is that they would accept it).<ref>BBC report at [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4655240.stm News.BBC.co.uk], full list of questions in German at [http://www.taz.de/index.php?id=archivseite&dig=2006/01/04/a0154 TAZ.de]</ref>

Other countries have instituted policies which encourage cultural separation.<ref name="ReitzBreton2009">{{cite book|author1=Jeffrey G. Reitz|author2=Raymond Breton|author3=Karen Kisiel Dion |author4=Kenneth L. Dion|title=Multiculturalism and Social Cohesion: Potentials and Challenges of Diversity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j1uUIUjqLkgC&pg=PA17|year=2009|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4020-9958-8|pages=17–20}}</ref> The concept of "[[Cultural exception]]" proposed by France in the [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]] (GATT) negotiations in 1993 was an example of a measure aimed at protecting local cultures.<ref name="GraberNenova2008">{{cite book|author1=Christoph Beat Graber|author2=Mira Burri Nenova|title=Intellectual property and traditional cultural expressions in a digital environment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK6OI0hrANsC&pg=PA87|date=30 November 2008|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|isbn=978-1-84720-921-4|pages=87–88}}</ref>

===Bulgaria===
[[File:Synagogue in Sofia 20090406 002.JPG|thumb|left|[[Sofia Synagogue]]]] [[File:Banyabaşı Mosque, Sofia 7-2006.jpg|thumb|left|[[Banya Bashi Mosque]] in Sofia]]
Since its establishment in the seventh century, [[Bulgaria]] has hosted many religions, ethnic groups and nations. The capital city [[Sofia]] is the only European city that has peacefully functioning, within walking distance of 300 metres,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.panoramio.com/photo_explorer#view=photo&position=55&with_photo_id=7648128&order=date_desc&user=671534 |title=Panoramio.com |publisher=panoramio.com |date=1 January 1970 |access-date=15 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130715092150/http://www.panoramio.com/photo_explorer |archive-date=15 July 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Alan Horton |url=http://bulgariafocus.com/religionsinbulgaria.html |title=Everything you want to know about the country of Bulgaria |publisher=Bulgaria Focus |access-date=29 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103220916/http://www.bulgariafocus.com/religionsinbulgaria.html |archive-date=3 January 2012 }}</ref> four [[Places of worship]] of the major religions: Eastern Orthodox ([[St Nedelya Church]]), Islam ([[Banya Bashi Mosque]]), Roman Catholicism ([[Cathedral of St Joseph, Sofia|St. Joseph Cathedral]]), and Orthodox Judaism ([[Sofia Synagogue]], the third-largest synagogue in Europe).

This unique arrangement has been called by historians a "multicultural cliche".<ref>Detrez, Raymond; Segaert, Barbara, 2008, Europe and the Historical Legacies in the Balkans (Multiple Europes), P.I.E. Peter Lang s.a., {{ISBN|978-90-5201-374-9}}, p. 55</ref> It has also become known as "The Square of Religious Tolerance"<ref>Ban, Ki-moon, [http://www.ceibs.edu/ase/Documents/diplomacy06.pdf The World in the next 20 years] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517110042/http://www.ceibs.edu/ase/Documents/diplomacy06.pdf |date=17 May 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vagobond.com/vagobond-bulgaria-part-2-sofia-places-worship/|title=Vagobond in Bulgaria – Part 2 – Sofia Places of Worship – Vagobond|date=1 February 2014|website=vagobond.com|access-date=22 October 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016023758/http://www.vagobond.com/vagobond-bulgaria-part-2-sofia-places-worship/|archive-date=16 October 2017}}</ref> and has initiated the construction of a 100-square-metre scale model of the site that is to become a symbol of the capital.<ref>{{cite web|author=В.Е. |url=http://news.ibox.bg/news/id_2097364880 |title=News.bg – Макет на 4 храма – туристически символ на София |date=3 May 2010 |publisher=News.ibox.bg |access-date=29 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://bnr.bg/sites/en/Lifestyle/MapOfBulgaria/Pages/0405SofiasymbolNew.aspx |title=Sofia's new tourist symbol &#124; Radio Bulgaria |publisher=Bnr.bg |access-date=29 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622064217/http://bnr.bg/sites/en/Lifestyle/MapOfBulgaria/Pages/0405SofiasymbolNew.aspx |archive-date=22 June 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sofiasymbol.bg/ |title=София – Мъдрост в действие |publisher=Sofiasymbol.bg |access-date=29 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127091513/http://www.sofiasymbol.bg/ |archive-date=27 January 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Furthermore, unlike some other [[Nazi Germany]] allies or German-occupied countries excluding [[Denmark]], Bulgaria managed to save its entire 48,000-strong Jewish population during [[World War II]] from deportation to [[Nazi concentration camps]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Tzvetan |last=Todorov |title=The Fragility of Goodness: Why Bulgaria's Jews Survived the Holocaust |translator=Arthur Denner |year=2003 |publisher=Princeton University Press |url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7026.html |isbn=9780691115641 |access-date=31 December 2011 |archive-date=9 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100709092623/http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7026.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Levi |first=Primo |title= Beyond Hitler's Grasp|publisher=Adams Media |year= 2001  |isbn=978-1580625418}}</ref> According to Dr Marinova-Christidi, the main reason for the efforts of Bulgarian people to save their Jewish population during WWII is that within the region, they "co-existed for centuries with other religions" – giving it a unique multicultural and multiethnic history.<ref>{{cite news|author=Leadel.Net |url=http://www.jpost.com/JewishWorld/JewishFeatures/Article.aspx?id=200216 |title=Exclusive video: 'Restoring the crown to former glory' | newspaper=The Jerusalem Post &#124; Jpost.com |publisher=Jpost.com |access-date=29 January 2012}}</ref>

Consequently, within the Balkan region, Bulgaria has become an example for multiculturalism in terms of variety of religions, artistic creativity<ref>[http://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/aeer/article/view/314/390 The Highs and Lows of Ethno-Cultural Diversity: Young People’s Experiences of Chalga Culture in Bulgaria], Apostolov, Apostol, Anthropology of East Europe Review, Vol 26, No 1 (2008), Cambridge University Press</ref> and ethnicity.<ref>Ruegg, Francois, 2007, Interculturalism and Discrimination in Romania: Policies, Practices, Identities and Representations, Lit Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-8258-8075-0}}</ref><ref>Hristova, Svetlana, 2004, [http://press.swu.bg/volume-collection/volume-2/bulgarian-politics-of-multiculturalism.aspx?lang=en Bulgarian Politics of Multiculturalism – uses and abuses], Scientific Research, University Publishing House, South-West University, Blagoevgrad</ref> Its largest ethnic minority groups, Turks and Roma, enjoy wide political representation. In 1984, following a campaign by the Communist regime for a forcible change of the Islamic names of the Turkish minority,<ref>The history of Turkish community in Bulgaria, Ibrahim Yalamov</ref><ref>The Human Rights of Muslims in Bulgaria in Law and Politics since 1878, Bulgarian Helsinki Committee, 2003</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pomak.eu/en/content/bulgarian-mps-officially-condemn-revival-process |title=Bulgarian MPs Officially Condemn 'Revival Process' |publisher=Pomak.eu |access-date=1 July 2013 |archive-date=16 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516135604/http://www.pomak.eu/en/content/bulgarian-mps-officially-condemn-revival-process |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>The Bulgarian state and Bulgarian Turks (to the mid-1930s until the early-1990s), Bulgarian Archive State Agency</ref> an underground organisation called «National Liberation Movement of the Turks in Bulgaria» was formed which headed the Turkish community's opposition movement. On 4 January 1990, the activists of the movement registered an organisation with the legal name [[Movement for Rights and Freedoms]] (MRF) (in Bulgarian: Движение за права и свободи: in Turkish: Hak ve Özgürlükler Hareketi) in the Bulgarian city of Varna. At the moment of registration, it had 33 members, at present, according to the organisation's website, 68,000 members plus 24,000 in the organisation's youth wing [https://web.archive.org/web/20071030132259/http://www.dps.bg/cgi-bin/e-cms/vis/vis.pl?s=001&p=0368&g=]. In 2012, Bulgarian Turks were represented at every level of government: local, with MRF having mayors in 35 municipalities, at parliamentary level with MRF having 38 deputies (14% of the votes in Parliamentary elections for 2009–13)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rezultati.cik2009.bg/results/proportional/rik_00.html |title=ЦИК : Резултати |publisher=Rezultati.cik2009.bg |date=1 January 1970 |access-date=1 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225103151/http://rezultati.cik2009.bg/results/proportional/rik_00.html |archive-date=25 February 2012 }}</ref> and at executive level, where there is one Turkish minister, [[Vezhdi Rashidov]]. 21 Roma political organisations were founded between 1997–2003 in Bulgaria.<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web|year = 2005|url = http://www.politeia.net/themes/citizenship_and_participation/the_political_representation_of_the_roma_minority_in_bulgaria_1990_2005|title = The Political Representation of the Roma Minority in Bulgaria: (1990–2005)|publisher = POLITEIA – Participation for Citizenship and Democracy in Europe|access-date = 1 April 2012|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120420200504/http://www.politeia.net/Themes/citizenship_and_participation/the_political_representation_of_the_roma_minority_in_bulgaria_1990_2005|archive-date = 20 April 2012}}</ref>

===France===
{{Further|Immigration to France}}
After the end of World War II in  1945, immigration significantly increased. During the period of reconstruction, France lacked the labour to do so, and as a result; the French Government was eager to recruit immigrants coming from all over Europe, the Americas, Africa and Asia.

Although there was a presence of, [[Vietnamese people in France|Vietnamese in France]] since the late-nineteenth century (mostly students and workers), a wave of Vietnamese migrated after 1954. These migrants consisted of those who were loyal to the colonial government and those married to French colonists. Following the [[partition of Vietnam]], students and professionals from [[South Vietnam]] continued to arrive in France. Although many initially returned to the country after a few years, as the [[Vietnam War]] situation worsened, a majority decided to remain in France and brought their families over as well.<ref>[http://eglasie.mepasie.org/divers-horizons/1995-10-16-la-diaspora-vietnamienne-en-france-un-cas La Diaspora Vietnamienne en France un cas particulier] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203000103/http://eglasie.mepasie.org/divers-horizons/1995-10-16-la-diaspora-vietnamienne-en-france-un-cas |date=3 December 2013}} (in French)</ref>

This period also saw a significant wave of immigrants from [[Algeria]]. As the [[Algerian War]] started in 1954, there were already 200,000 [[Algerians in France|Algerian immigrants in France]].<ref name="histoire-immigration.fr">"Le film: deux siècles d'histoire de l'immigration en France." http://www.histoire-immigration.fr/histoire-de-l-immigration/le-film {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170102185749/http://www.histoire-immigration.fr/histoire-de-l-immigration/le-film |date=2 January 2017 }}</ref> However, because of the tension between the Algerians and the French, these immigrants were no longer welcome. This conflict between the two sides led to the [[Paris massacre of 1961|Paris Massacre]] of 17 October 1961, when the police used force against an Algerian demonstration on the streets of Paris. After the war, after Algeria gained its independence, the free circulation between France and Algeria was once again allowed, and the number of Algerian immigrants started to increase drastically. From 1962–75, the Algerian immigrant population increased from 350,000 to 700,000.<ref>"En 1962, lors de l'Indépendance, ils sont 350 000. En 1975 les émigrants algériens sont 710 000 et constituent le deuxième groupe d'étrangers après les Portugais." "De 1945 à 1975." {{cite web |url=http://www.histoire-immigration.fr/dix-themes-pour-connaitre-deux-siecles-d-histoire-de-l-immigration/emigrer/de-1945-a-1975 |title=De 1945 à 1975 &#124; Cité nationale de l'histoire de l'immigration |access-date=22 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912030132/http://www.histoire-immigration.fr/dix-themes-pour-connaitre-deux-siecles-d-histoire-de-l-immigration/emigrer/de-1945-a-1975 |archive-date=12 September 2011 }}</ref> Many of these immigrants were known as the "[[harki]]s", and the others were known as the "[[pieds-noirs]]". The "harkis" were Algerians who supported the French during the Algerian War; once the war was over, they were deeply resented by other Algerians, and thus had to flee to France. The "pieds-noirs" were European settlers who moved to Algeria, but migrated back to France since 1962 when Algeria declared independence.

According to Erik Bleich, multiculturalism in France faced stiff resistance in the educational sector, especially regarding recent Muslim arrivals from Algeria. Gatekeepers often warned that multiculturalism was a threat to the historic basis of French culture.<ref>Erik Bleich,. "From international ideas to domestic policies: Educational multiculturalism in England and France." ''Comparative Politics'' (1998): 81–100 [http://www.middlebury.edu/media/view/251954/original/from_intl_ideas_to_domestic_policies.pdf online].</ref>

[[Jeremy Jennings]] finds three positions among elites regarding the question of reconciling traditional [[Fundamental principles recognized by the laws of the Republic|French Republican principles]] with multiculturalism. The traditionalists refuse to make any concessions and instead insist on clinging to the historic republican principles of [[Secularism in France|"laïcité"]] and the secular state in which religion and ethnicity are always ignored. In the middle are modernising republicans who uphold republicanism but also accept some elements of cultural pluralism. Finally there are multiculturalist republicans who envision a pluralist conception of French identity and seek an appreciation of the positive values brought to France by the minority cultures.<ref>Jeremy Jennings, "Citizenship, Republicanism and Multiculturalism in Contemporary France," ''British Journal of Political Science'' (2000) 30#4 575–597.</ref>

A major attack on multiculturalism came in [[Stasi Commission|Stasi Report]] of 2003 which denounces "Islamism" as deeply opposed to the mainstream interpretations of French culture. It is portrayed as a dangerous political agenda that will create a major obstacle for Muslims to comply with [[Secularism in France|French secularism or "laïcité "]].<ref>Jennifer A. Selby, "Islam in France reconfigured: Republican Islam in the 2010 Gerin report." ''Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs'' 31.3 (2011): 383–398.</ref>  Murat Akan, however, argues that the Stasi Report and the new regulations against the [[hijab]] and religious symbols in the schools must be set against gestures toward multiculturalism, such as the creation of Muslim schools under contract with the government.<ref>Murat Akan, "Laïcité and multiculturalism: the Stasi Report in context," ''British Journal of Sociology'' (2009) 60#2 pp 237–256 [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Murat-Akan/publication/26260531_Laicite_and_multiculturalism_The_Stasi_Report_in_context/links/5e7c8990a6fdcc139c0486a1/Laicite-and-multiculturalism-The-Stasi-Report-in-context.pdf online].</ref>

===Germany===
{{Main|Immigration to Germany}}
In October 2010, [[Angela Merkel]] told a meeting of younger members of her [[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|Christian Democratic Union]] (CDU) party at [[Potsdam]], near [[Berlin]], that attempts to build a multicultural society in Germany had "utterly failed",<ref name="fail">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11559451|work=[[BBC News]] |title=Merkel says German multicultural society has failed|date=17 October 2010}}</ref> stating: "The concept that we are now living side by side and are happy about it does not work".<ref name="fail" /><ref>{{cite news|title= Germans argue over integration|work= BBC|date=30 November 2004|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/4056109.stm|access-date=18 October 2010|first=Ray|last=Furlong}}</ref> She continued to say that immigrants should integrate and adopt Germany's culture and values. This has added to a growing debate within Germany<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11532699|work=[[BBC News]] |title=Germany's charged immigration debate|date=17 October 2010}}</ref> on the levels of immigration, its effect on Germany and the degree to which middle eastern immigrants have integrated into German society.<ref>[http://www.aicgs.org/publication/the-many-sides-of-muslim-integration-a-german-american-comparison/ "Rauf Ceylan: Muslims in Germany: Religious and Political Challenges and Perspectives in the Diaspora],</ref> In 2015, Merkel again criticized multiculturalism on the grounds that it leads to [[Parallel society|parallel societies]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/12/14/angela-merkel-multiculturalism-is-a-sham/|title=Multiculturalism is a sham, says Angela Merkel|date=14 December 2015|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=24 February 2019}}</ref>

The [[Ahmadiyya]] Muslim Community of Germany is the first Muslim group to have been granted "corporation under public law status", putting the community on par with the major Christian churches and Jewish communities of Germany.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.dw.de/muslims-in-germany-have-rights-and-obligations/a-16888992 | title=Muslims in Germany have rights and obligations | date=18 June 2013 | access-date=7 June 2014}}</ref>

=== Luxembourg ===
Luxembourg has one of the highest foreign-born populations in Europe, foreigners account for nearly half of the country's total population.<ref>Sarah Krouse, "Piping Hot Gromperekichelcher, Only if You Pass the Sproochentest." WALL STREET JOURNAL, 19 January 2018, p.1</ref> The majority of foreigners are from: [[Belgium]], France, Italy, Germany, and [[Portugal]].<ref>"[http://www.statistiques.public.lu/fr/actualites/population/population/2013/04/20130418/20130418.pdf La progression de la population du Grand-Duché continue: 537 039 résidants au 1er janvier 2013]." Statnews 16/2013, op statec.lu, 18 April 2013. (in French).</ref> In total, 170 different nationalities make up the population of Luxembourg, out of this; 86% are of European descent.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.justarrived.lu/en/practical-information/population-in-luxembourg/|title=Luxembourg, an ever-growing multicultural population|work=JUST ARRIVED|access-date=22 July 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> The official languages of Luxembourg are German, French, and [[Luxembourgish language|Luxembourgish]] all of which are supported in the Luxembourg government and education system.<ref name="auto1"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unavarra.es/tel2l/eng/luxembourg.htm|title=The Trilingual Education system in Luxembourg|website=unavarra.es|access-date=22 July 2018}}</ref> In 2005, Luxembourg officially promoted and implemented the objectives of the [[UNESCO]] Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions. This Convention affirms multicultural policies in Luxembourg and creates political awareness of cultural diversity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/countries/luxembourg/conventions?title=&field_date_d_m_y_value%5Bvalue%5D%5Bdate%5D=|title=Conventions – Luxembourg|website=UNESCO|language=en|access-date=22 July 2018}}</ref>

===Netherlands===
{{Main|Multiculturalism in the Netherlands}}
[[File:Süleymaniye-moskee1.JPG|thumb|upright=0.8|left|Süleymanìye Mosque in [[Tilburg]], built in 2001]]
Multiculturalism in the Netherlands began with major increases in immigration to the Netherlands during the mid-1950s and 1960s.<ref name="Wessendorf2010">{{cite book|author=Susanne Wessendorf|title=The multiculturalism backlash: European discourses, policies and practices|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wUaHVimJkT0C&pg=PA73|year=2010|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-55649-1|pages=73–75}}</ref> As a consequence, an official national policy of multiculturalism was adopted in the early-1980s.<ref name="Wessendorf2010" /> Different groups could themselves determine religious and cultural matters, while state authorities would handle matters of housing and work policy.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=http://kjonnsforskning.no/nb/2017/03/norske-likestillingsidealer-gjor-muslimske-kvinner-mer-religiose|title=Likestillingsidealer gjør muslimske kvinner mer religiøse|last=iStockphoto|first=Illustrasjonsfoto|website=Kilden|date=28 March 2017 |language=nb|access-date=24 February 2019}}</ref>

In the 1990s, the public debate were generally optimistic on immigration and the prevailing view was that a multicultural policy would reduce the social economic disparities over time.<ref name=":8" />

This policy subsequently gave way to more assimilationist policies in the 1990s and post-electoral surveys uniformly showed from 1994 onwards that a majority preferred that immigrants assimilated rather than retained the culture of their country of origin.<ref name="Wessendorf2010" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Damhuis|first=Koen|date=2019|title="The biggest problem in the Netherlands": Understanding the Party for Freedom's politicization of Islam|url=https://www.brookings.edu/research/the-biggest-problem-in-the-netherlands-understanding-the-party-for-freedoms-politicization-of-islam/|access-date=28 February 2021|website=Brookings|language=en-US}}</ref>

Following the [[September 11 attacks]] in the United States and the murders of [[Pim Fortuyn]] (in 2002) and [[Theo van Gogh (film director)|Theo van Gogh]] (in 2004), there was increased political debate on the role of multiculturalism in the Netherlands.<ref name=":8" /><ref name="ModoodTriandafyllidou2006">{{cite book|author1=Tariq Modood|author2=Anna Triandafyllidou|author3-link=Ricard Zapata-Barrero|author3=Ricard Zapata-Barrero|title=Multiculturalism, Muslims and citizenship: a European approach|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7OAAV5eEmy4C&pg=PA27|date=6 April 2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-35515-5|page=27|author1-link=Tariq Modood}}</ref>

[[Lord Sacks]], Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth, made a distinction between tolerance and multiculturalism, citing the Netherlands as a tolerant, rather than multicultural, society.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-12381027 |date=7 February 2011 |title=Multiculturalism: What does it mean? |newspaper=[[BBC News Online]]}}</ref> In June 2011, the [[First Rutte cabinet]] said the Netherlands would turn away from multiculturalism: "Dutch culture, norms and values must be dominant" [[Piet Hein Donner|Minister Donner]] said.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.elsevier.nl/web/Nieuws/Politiek/300160/Donner-Afscheid-van-multiculturele-samenleving-Nederland.htm |date=16 June 2011 |title=Donner: Afscheid van multiculturele samenleving Nederland |newspaper=[[Elsevier (magazine)|Elsevier]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129202053/http://www.elsevier.nl/web/Nieuws/Politiek/300160/Donner-Afscheid-van-multiculturele-samenleving-Nederland.htm |archive-date=29 November 2011 }}</ref>

===Romania===
{{Main|Immigration to Romania}}
Since [[Classical antiquity|Antiquity]], [[Romania]] has hosted many religious and ethnic groups, besides [[Romanians]], including [[Romani people|Roma]] people, [[Hungarians]], [[Germans]], [[Turks of Romania|Turks]], [[Greeks in Romania|Greeks]], [[Tatars of Romania|Tatars]], [[Slovaks of Romania|Slovaks]], [[Serbs of Romania|Serbs]], [[History of the Jews in Romania|Jews]] and [[Minorities in Romania|others]]. During [[WW2]] and [[Communism]], most of these ethnic groups chose to emigrate to other countries. However, since the 1990s, Romania has received a growing number of immigrants and refugees, most of them from the [[Arab world]], [[Asia]] or [[Africa]]. Immigration is expected to increase in the future, as large numbers of Romanian workers leave the country and are being replaced by foreigners.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ziare.com/actual/social/10-14-2008/imigrantii-in-romania-nu-se-bucura-de-drepturile-care-li-s-ar-cuveni-434535 |title=Imigrantii in Romania nu se bucura de drepturile care li s-ar cuveni |publisher=Ziare.com |access-date=8 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ziare.com/actual/diaspora/07-14-2009/le-monde-romania-noua-destinatie-a-imigrantilor-818911 |title=Le Monde: Romania, noua destinatie a imigrantilor |publisher=Ziare.com |date=13 July 2009 |access-date=8 October 2013}}</ref>

=== Scandinavia ===
[[File:2017-09-01 HS-Reise Multi-Kulti in Vuosaari (991).jpg|thumb|The [[Vuosaari]] district in [[Helsinki]], [[Finland]], is highly multicultural.<ref>[https://www.uuttahelsinkia.fi/fi/esikaupungit/rakentaminen/vuosaari Vuosaari – Uutta Helsinkiä] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606154215/https://www.uuttahelsinkia.fi/fi/esikaupungit/rakentaminen/vuosaari |date=6 June 2020 }} (in Finnish)</ref><ref>[https://www.helsinginuutiset.fi/paikalliset/1440569 Asukkaat ja kuvasarja kertoo, millainen on Vuosaari – Professori: "Vuosaari on maahanmuuton tienraivaaja"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606154208/https://www.helsinginuutiset.fi/paikalliset/1440569 |date=6 June 2020 }} (in Finnish)</ref>]]
Multiculturalism in Scandinavia has centered on discussions about marriage, dress, religious schools, Muslim funeral rites and gender equality. [[Forced marriage]]s have been widely debated in Denmark, Sweden and Norway but the countries differ in policy and responses by authorities.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://kjonnsforskning.no/nb/2006/05/multikulturalisme-i-skandinavia|title=Multikulturalisme i Skandinavia|website=kjonnsforskning.no (sub-unit of the Research Council of Norway)|date=30 May 2006 |language=nb|access-date=24 February 2019}}</ref>

Sweden has the most permissive policies while Denmark the most restrictive ones.

==== Denmark ====
{{Main|Immigration to Denmark}}
{{Multiple issues|section=1|
{{Weasel|section|date=January 2019}}
}}

In 2001, Denmark, a liberal-conservative coalition government with the support of the [[Danish People's Party]] which instituted less pluralistic policy, geared more towards [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]].<ref name=":1" />

A 2018 study found that increases in local ethnic diversity in Denmark caused "rightward shifts in election outcomes by shifting electoral support away from traditional "big government" left‐wing parties and towards anti‐immigrant nationalist parties."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harmon |first1=Nikolaj A. |title=Immigration, Ethnic Diversity, and Political Outcomes: Evidence from Denmark |journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics |date=October 2018 |volume=120 |issue=4 |pages=1043–1074 |doi=10.1111/sjoe.12239 |s2cid=54936991 |url=http://www.econ.ku.dk/nharmon/docs/harmon2013immigration.pdf }}</ref>

For decades, Danish immigration policy was built upon the belief that, with support, immigrants and their descendants would eventually reach the same levels of education as Danes. In a 2019 report, the [[Danish Immigration Service]] and the [[Ministry of Education (Denmark)|Ministry of Education]] found this to be false. The report found that, while the second-generation immigrants without a Western background do better than their parents, the same is not true for third-generation immigrants. One of the reasons given was that second-generation immigrants may marry someone from their country of origin, which may cause Danish not to be spoken at home, which would put the children at a disadvantage in school. Thereby, the process of integrating has to start from the beginning for each generation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.berlingske.dk/content/item/1329273|title=Opråb fra ministre: Problemer med integration af børn af ikkevestlige indvandrere|date=16 December 2018|website=[[Berlingske]].dk|language=da|access-date=29 January 2019|quote=Danmarks integrationspolitik har i årtier været bygget op om troen på, at med den rette hjælp vil indvandrere og deres efterkommerne generation for generation falde til. En ny undersøgelse rammer en pæl gennem den forestilling. Den fastslår, at tredjegenerationsindvandrerne ikke får bedre karakterer i folkeskolen end generationen før dem. At der ikke er flere, som færdiggør en ungdomsuddannelse. Og at der ikke er flere, som får et arbejde. Det fremgår af »Analyse af børn af efterkommere med ikke-vestlig baggrund«, som er udarbejdet af Integrationsministeriet og Undervisningsministeriet. Den kortlægger for første gang, hvordan tredjegenerationsindvandrerne klarer sig på centrale parametre. // »Vi ved fra forskningen, at børn, som taler dansk i hjemmet, klarer sig bedre i skolen. Men mange gifter sig med én, som kommer direkte fra hjemlandet. Det vil sige, at integrationen starter forfra i hver generation,« siger Merete Riisager.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uim.dk/nyheder/2018/2018-12/tredjegenerationsindvandrere-klarer-sig-ikke-bedre-end-anden-generation|title=Tredjegenerationsindvandrere klarer sig ikke bedre end anden generation – Udlændinge- og Integrationsministeriet|website=uim.dk|access-date=19 October 2019|archive-date=19 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019094846/https://uim.dk/nyheder/2018/2018-12/tredjegenerationsindvandrere-klarer-sig-ikke-bedre-end-anden-generation|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Norway ====
{{Main|Immigration to Norway}}[[File:Norway migrant education.png|thumb|Educational attainment of migrants in Norway in 2018<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ssb.no/en/statbank/table/09623/|title = 09623: Educational attainment of immigrants, by country background (Single country) 2004 – 2020}}</ref>]]

Apart from citizens of [[Nordic countries]], all foreigners must apply for permanent residency in order to live and work in Norway.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lovdata.no/dokument/NL/lov/2008-05-15-35|title=Lov om utlendingers adgang til riket og deres opphold her (utlendingsloven) – Lovdata|website=lovdata.no|language=no|access-date=2 March 2018}}</ref> In 2017, the Norwegian immigrant population was made up of: citizens of EU and [[European Economic Area|EEA]] countries (41.2%); citizens of Asian countries, including Turkey (32.4%); citizens of African countries (13.7%); and citizens of non-EU/EEA European, North American, South American and Oceanian countries (12.7%).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ssb.no/befolkning/statistikker/innvbef|title=Innvandrere og norskfødte med innvandrerforeldre|work=ssb.no|access-date=2 March 2018|language=nb-NO}}</ref>

In 2015, during the [[European migrant crisis]], a total of 31,145 asylum seekers, most of whom came from Afghanistan and Syria, crossed the Norwegian border.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://snl.no/asylsituasjonen_i_Norge_2015_og_2016|title=Asylsituasjonen i Norge 2015 og 2016|last=Garvik|first=Olav|date=2017|website=Store Norske Leksikon}}</ref> In 2016, the number of asylum seekers dramatically reduced by almost 90%, with 3460 asylum seekers coming to Norway. This was partly due to the stricter border control across Europe, including an agreement between the EU and Turkey.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://forskning.no/innvandring-samfunn-samfunnskunnskap/2016/12/fra-30-000-til-3000-asylsokere-hva-har-skjedd|title=Fra 30 000 til 3000 asylsøkere, hva har skjedd?|last=Amundsen|first=Bård|date=23 December 2016|website=Forskning.no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/sites/homeaffairs/files/what-we-do/policies/european-agenda-migration/background-information/eu_turkey_statement_17032017_en.pdf|title=EU-Turkey Statement 2016}}</ref>

As of September 2019, 15 foreign residents who had travelled from Norway to Syria or Iraq to join the [[Islamic State]] have had their residence permits revoked.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://sverigesradio.se/sida/artikel.aspx?programid=83&artikel=7299474|title=Norska IS-resenärer förlorar uppehållstillstånd – Nyheter (Ekot)|last=Radio|first=Sveriges|newspaper=Sveriges Radio|date=14 September 2019|language=sv|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref>

The [[Progress Party (Norway)|Progress Party]] has named the reduction of high levels of immigration from non-European countries one of their goals:
: "Immigration from countries outside the EEA must be strictly enforced to ensure a successful integration. It can not be accepted that fundamental Western values and human rights are set aside by cultures and attitudes that certain groups of immigrants bring with them to Norway."<ref>[http://www.frp.no/nor/mener/En-enklere-hverdag/FrP-fra-A-til-AA#id38159 The Progress Party's politics] (In Norwegian) From the official website of the Progress Party (23 November 2014)</ref>

An extreme form of opposition to immigration in Norway were [[2011 Norway attacks|the 22/7 attacks]] carried out by the terrorist [[Anders Behring Breivik]] on 22 July 2011. He killed 8 people by bombing government buildings in Oslo and massacred 69 young people at a youth summer camp held by the [[Labour Party (Norway)|Labour Party]], who were in power at the time. He blamed the party for the high level of Muslim immigration and accused it of "promoting multiculturalism".<ref>"[https://archive.today/20141123214301/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/europe/07/25/norway.terror.attacks/index.html?_s=PM:WORLD Prime minister: Norway still 'an open society' despite 'the horror']" [[CNN]], 25 July 2011</ref>

==== Sweden ====
{{Main|Immigration to Sweden}}[[File:Mångfaldsbarometern 2014 cultural distances in Sweden.png|thumb|322x322px|Source: [[Gävle University College]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://www.hig.se/download/18.4db66897149b264e1ba4df24/1417115797086/mangfald.pdf|title=Mångfaldsbarometern 2014|publisher=Gävle University College|date=October 2014|pages=57|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160621094211/https://www.hig.se/download/18.4db66897149b264e1ba4df24/1417115797086/mangfald.pdf|archive-date=21 June 2016}}</ref>]]
Sweden has from the early 1970s experienced a greater share of non-Western immigration than the other Scandinavian countries, which consequently have placed multiculturalism on the political agenda for a longer period of time.<ref name=":1" />

Sweden was the first country to adopt an official policy of multiculturalism in Europe. On 14 May 1975, a unanimous Swedish parliament passed an act on a new multiculturalist immigrant and ethnic minority policy put forward by the [[social democracy|social democratic]] government, that explicitly rejected the ideal ethnic homogeneity and the policy of assimilation.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dagenssamhalle.se/nyhet/dags-att-begrava-det-multikulturella-projektet-31651|title=Dags att begrava det multikulturella projektet|publisher=Dagens sahmälle|language=Swedish|date=17 February 2017|access-date=13 February 2021}}</ref> The three main principles of the new policy were equality, partnership and freedom of choice. The explicit policy aim of the freedom of choice principle was to create the opportunity for minority groups in Sweden to retain their own languages and cultures. From the mid-1970s, the goal of enabling the preservation of minorities and creating a positive attitude towards the new officially endorsed multicultural society among the majority population became incorporated into the Swedish constitution as well as cultural, educational and media policies. Despite the anti-multiculturalist protestations of the [[Sweden Democrats]], multiculturalism remains official policy in Sweden.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The multicultural moment: the history of the idea and politics of multiculturalism in Sweden in comparative, transnational and biographical context, 1964–1975|last=Wickström|first=Mats|publisher=Åbo Akademi|year=2015|isbn=978-952-12-3133-9|url=http://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi-fe201501071068}}</ref>

A 2008 study which involved questionnaires sent to 5,000 people, showed that less than a quarter of the respondents (23%) wanted to live in areas characterised by cultural, ethnic and social diversity.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.svd.se/svenskar-vill-ha-inhagnat-boende|title=Svenskar vill ha inhägnat boende {{!}} SvD|last=TT|work=SvD.se|access-date=14 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322170850/http://www.svd.se/svenskar-vill-ha-inhagnat-boende|archive-date=22 March 2016|language=sv}}</ref>

A 2014 study published by [[Gävle University College]] showed that 38% of the population never interacted with anyone from Africa and 20% never interacted with any non-Europeans.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.hig.se/download/18.4db66897149b264e1ba4df24/1417115797086/mangfald.pdf|title=Mångfaldsbarometern 2014|publisher=Gävle University College|date=October 2014|pages=7–8|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160621094211/https://www.hig.se/download/18.4db66897149b264e1ba4df24/1417115797086/mangfald.pdf|archive-date=21 June 2016}}</ref> The study concluded that while physical distance to the country of origin, also religion and other cultural expressions are significant for the perception of cultural familiarity. In general, peoples with Christianity as the dominant religion were perceived to be culturally closer than peoples from Muslim countries.<ref name=":0" />

A 2017 study by [[Lund University]] also found that social trust was lower among people in regions with high levels of past non-Nordic immigration than among people in regions with low levels of past immigration.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=McShane|first1=Karl|date=2017|title=Getting used to diversity? Immigration and trust in Sweden|url=https://lup.lub.lu.se/search/publication/6d33125a-0256-40b2-9c41-37a7486ddb0d|journal=Economics Bulletin|volume=37|issue=3|pages=16|access-date=2 January 2018}}</ref> The erosive effect on trust was more pronounced for immigration from culturally distant countries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McShane|first=Karl|date=31 August 2017|title=Getting Used to Diversity? Immigration and Trust in Sweden|url=http://www.accessecon.com/Pubs/EB/2017/Volume37/EB-17-V37-I3-P171.pdf|journal=Economics Bulletin|volume=37| issue = 3|pages=12|access-date=8 April 2018}}</ref>

===Serbia===
[[File:Voivodina Hungarians national costume and dance 6.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|right|[[Csárdás]] traditional Hungarian folk dance in [[Doroslovo]]]]
In [[Serbia]], there are 19 officially recognised ethnic groups with a status of national minorities.<ref>Gojkovic N. [http://www.kas.de/upload/auslandshomepages/serbien/Gojkovic_en.pdf System of minorities’ protection in Serbia] [[Konrad Adenauer Foundation]]</ref> [[Vojvodina]] is an [[Autonomous administrative division|autonomous province]] of Serbia, located in the northern part of the country. It has a multiethnic and multicultural identity;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vojvodina.gov.rs/en/autonomous-province-vojvodina|title=Покрајинска влада|work=vojvodina.gov.rs}}</ref> there are more than 26 [[Ethnic groups in Vojvodina|ethnic groups]] in the province,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arhiva.serbia.gov.rs/cms/view.php/1045.print.html|title=Autonomous Province of Vojvodina|work=vojvodina.gov.rs}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vip.org.rs/index.aspx?tabId=62&menutabid=10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081227015638/http://www.vip.org.rs/index.aspx?tabId=62&menutabid=10|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 December 2008|title=Error|work=vip.org.rs}}</ref> which has six official languages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bgcentar.org.rs/index.php?option=com_phocadownload&view=category&id=22:podzakonska-akta&download=250:statut-autonomne-pokrajine-vojvodine&Itemid=54|title=Beogradski centar za ljudska prava |publisher= Belgrade Centre for Human Rights|date=29 March 2015|work=bgcentar.org.rs}}</ref> Largest ethnic groups in Vojvodina are [[Serbs]] (67%), [[Hungarians in Serbia|Hungarians]] (13%), [[Slovaks in Serbia|Slovaks]], [[Croats of Vojvodina|Croats]], [[Romani people in Serbia|Romani]], [[Romanians of Serbia|Romanians]], [[Montenegrins of Serbia|Montenegrins]], [[Bunjevci]], [[Bosniaks of Serbia|Bosniaks]], [[Pannonian Rusyns|Rusyns]]. The Chinese<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=83182&page=1|title=Chinese Migrants Use Serbia as Gate to Europe|website=ABC News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.novosti.rs/vesti/naslovna/reportaze/aktuelno.293.html:446510-I-Kinezi-napustaju-Srbiju|title=I Kinezi napuštaju Srbiju|website=NOVOSTI}}</ref> and Arabs, are the only two significant immigrant minorities in Serbia.

[[Radio Television of Vojvodina]] broadcasts program in ten local languages. The project by the [[Government of Vojvodina|Government of AP Vojvodina]] titled "Promotion of Multiculturalism and Tolerance in Vojvodina", whose primary goal is to foster the cultural diversity and develop the atmosphere of interethnic tolerance among the citizens of Vojvodina, has been successfully implemented since 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.puma.vojvodina.gov.rs/etext.php?ID_mat=1373&PHPSESSID=fs04q4o2f89iff2agkt8ld4rq0|title=Promotion of Multiculturalism and Tolerance|date=26 July 2015|work=puma.vojvodina.gov.rs}}</ref> Serbia is continually working on improving its relationship and inclusion of minorities in its effort to gain full accession to the European Union. Serbia has initiated talks through Stabilisation and Association Agreement on 7 November 2007.

===United Kingdom===
{{Main|Modern immigration to the United Kingdom}}
Multicultural policies<ref name="Wotherspoon1995">{{cite book|author=Terry Wotherspoon|title=Multicultural education in a changing global economy: Canada and the Netherlands|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PcKGBd4itKYC&pg=PA1|year=1995|publisher=Waxmann Verlag|isbn=978-3-89325-331-9|page=1}}</ref> were adopted by local administrations from the 1970s and 1980s onwards. In 1997, the newly elected [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] government committed to a multiculturalist approach at a national level,<ref name="Hadjetian2008">{{cite book|author=Sylvia Hadjetian|title=Multiculturalism and Magic Realism? Between Fiction and Reality|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GBaE1n0juzsC&pg=PA31|date=April 2008|publisher=GRIN Verlag|isbn=978-3-638-93283-7|page=31}}</ref> but after 2001, there was something of a [[Criticism of multiculturalism#United Kingdom|backlash]], led by centre-left commentators such as [[David Goodhart]] and [[Trevor Phillips]]. The Government then embraced a policy of [[community cohesion]] instead. In 2011, [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] Prime Minister [[David Cameron]] said in a speech that "state multiculturalism has failed".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-12371994 |title=State multiculturalism has failed, says David Cameron |newspaper=[[BBC News Online]] |date=5 February 2011}}</ref> Critics argue that analyses which view society as 'too diverse' for social democracy and cohesion have "performative" effects regarding legitimate racism towards those classed as immigrants.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Erel |first1=Umut |last2=Murji |first2=Karim |last3=Nahaboo |first3=Zaki |title=Understanding the contemporary race–migration nexus |journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies |date=13 May 2016 |volume=39 |issue=8 |page=1353 |doi=10.1080/01419870.2016.1161808 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lentin |first1=Alana |last2=Titley |first2=Gavan |title=The Crisis of Multiculturalism: Racism in a Neoliberal Age |date=2011 |publisher=Zed Books |location=London; New York |isbn=978-1848135819 }}</ref> Others, however, like author [[Ed West (journalist)|Ed West]], criticize the notion that the United Kingdom is or should be a multicultural society in the first place and that the project of diversity is misguided.<ref name="West 2013">West, Ed (2013). ''The Diversity Illusion: What We Got Wrong About Immigration & How to Set it Right'', Gibson Square Books Ltd ({{ISBN|978-1908096050}})</ref>

===Russian Federation===
{{Main|Ethnic groups in Russia|Russian nationality law}}The idea of multiculturalism in Russia is closely linked to the territory and the Soviet concept of "[[National delimitation in the Soviet Union|nationality]]". The Federation is divided into a series of [[Republics of Russia|republics]] where each ethnic group has preponderance in deciding the laws that affect that republic. A distinction is then made between ''Rossiyane'' (Russian citizens) and ''Russkie'' (ethnic Russians).

Each people within their territories has the right to practice their customs and traditions and even to impose their own laws, as is the case in [[Chechnya]], as long as they do not violate federal and constitutional laws of the [[Russian Federation]].