Editing Quotation (section)

===Syntax===
Different versions of quotative verbs, particles, and evidentials can be used to express the same idea with varying nuances, often to frame how the primary speaker, or the person who is quoting, feels about a quotation. The syntax of quotations varies cross-linguistically. A primary speaker may use the tense and linguistic idiosyncrasies of the speech at the time it was uttered in a quotation, independent from the tense in the main clause in some languages, or use the same tense in both the main clause and quotation in other languages. They will also use [[coreference]]d pronouns to the direct quotation's first-person subject in the main clause: She<sub>x</sub> said, "I<sub>x</sub>..."; they<sub>y</sub> said "we<sub>y</sub> ..." In many languages, the primary speaker may also attempt to quote an utterance in the same language the original speaker used, even if an interlocutor does not understand it; however, it is mainly context-dependent such as when telling stories.<ref name="Evans Canonical">{{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Nicholas |title=Canonical Morphology and Syntax |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |chapter=Some problems in the typology of quotation: a canonical approach}}</ref><ref name="Klamer report">{{cite journal |last1=Klamer |first1=Marian |title=How report verbs become quote markers and complementisers |journal=Lingua |date=2000 |volume=110 |issue=2 |pages=69–98 |doi=10.1016/S0024-3841(99)00032-7|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0024384199000327 | access-date=13 April 2020|hdl=1887/18278 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="DarcyA Review">{{cite journal |last1=D'Arcy |first1=Alexandra |title=Quotation and advances in understanding syntactic systems |journal=Annual Review of Linguistics |date=2015 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=43–61 |doi=10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-125220|doi-access=free }}</ref>

====Quotative verbs====
Quotative verbs are lexical verbs that indicate the speech, thoughts, or perceptions of the original speaker.<ref name="Evans Canonical"/><ref name="Klamer report"/>

Quotations can be introduced as the complement to a quotative verb or as the head phrase to an adjunct phrase containing a quotative verb in some languages like English and French.<ref name="sdq bonami"/><ref name="DarcyA Review"/>
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
! ||Quotation as complement || Quotation as head phrase adjunct <ref name="sdq bonami"/>
|-
| English || Marie said, "My brother has arrived." || "My brother has arrived," Marie said.
|-
| French || Marie a dit, "Mon frère est arrivé." || "Mon frère est arrivé," comme a dit Marie.
|}
English also displays [[verb-second]] (V2) order vestige only in quotation contexts (quotative inversion), requiring the finite verb to appear in the second position of a clause. For example: "No no no" ''says'' Harry.<ref name="DarcyA Review"/>

Direct and indirect quotations are sometimes not distinguishable. Traditionally, English uses an overt complementizer ''that'' after a quotative verb to indicate indirect quotation, but it is also seen to prompt direct quotation in some English varieties like Indian English, Hong Kong English, and Kenyan English.
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Hong Kong English || After the movie I just '''said that''' "Oh Frank I cannot walk."<ref name="DarcyA Review"/>
|-
| Indian English || Never a husband '''says that''' "I'll make a cup of tea okay, you sit. I'll make a cup of tea."
|-
| Kenyan English || So Kabuwe Abuwe '''told''' us '''that''' "If it is for wedding I am not going to contribute."
|}[[File:Aaronx was like ix hate you.png|thumb|Quotative verb "be like" in English.]]
The newer quotative verb ''be like'' in English is used to only introduce direct quotations. ''Be like'' includes the use of the demonstrative ''that'', which is null in most English varieties, but can be optionally overt in some varieties like Glasgow English. Dutch's quotative verb ''hebben zoiets van'' has a similar structure to Standard American English in that it has a null demonstrative that precedes the quotation. It differs from the English structures in that it uses an overt quantifier ''zoiets'' to be [[grammaticality|well-formed]].<ref name="haddican et al">{{cite journal |last1=Haddican |first1=William |last2=Zweig |first2=Eytan |last3=Johnson |first3=Daniel Ezra |title=The syntax of be like quotatives |journal=Proceedings of the 29th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics |date=2012 |pages=81–89 |url=http://www.lingref.com/cpp/wccfl/29/paper2690.pdf}}</ref>
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Standard North American English !! Glasgow English !! Dutch<ref name="haddican et al"/>
|-
| [<sub>TP</sub> Aaron [<sub>T'</sub> was [<sub>PP</sub> like [<sub>DP</sub> '''∅''' [<sub>QUOTE</sub> I hate you]]]]] || [<sub>TP</sub> Aaron [<sub>T'</sub> was [<sub>PP</sub> like [<sub>DP</sub> '''∅''' [<sub>QUOTE</sub> I hate you]]]]] || [<sub>TP</sub> Ik [<sub>T'</sub> hebben [<sub>DP</sub> '''zoiets''' [<sub>PP</sub> van [<sub>DP</sub> '''∅''' [<sub>QUOTE</sub> I hate you]]]]] 
|-
| [[grammaticality|*]][<sub>TP</sub> Aaron [<sub>T'</sub> was [<sub>PP</sub> like [<sub>DP</sub> '''that''' [<sub>QUOTE</sub> I hate you]]]]] 
|| [<sub>TP</sub> Aaron [<sub>T'</sub> was [<sub>PP</sub> like [<sub>DP</sub> '''that''' [<sub>QUOTE</sub> I hate you]]]]] || [[grammaticality|*]][<sub>TP</sub> Ik [<sub>T'</sub> hebben [<sub>DP</sub> '''∅''' [<sub>PP</sub> van [<sub>DP</sub> '''∅''' [<sub>QUOTE</sub> I hate you]]]]] 
|-
|}

====Quotative particles====
Quotative or hearsay particles are grammatical markers equivalent to full lexical verbs with meanings of ''"say, mention, tell, etc."'' In many languages, they are [[grammaticalization|grammaticalized]] to different extremes from their previously lexical form. Common patterns of grammaticalization trajectories include verb to complementizer in many African and Asian languages and verb to [[tense-aspect-mood]] markers primarily in African languages, but also in Australian languages and multiple other [[language family|language families]].<ref name="DarcyA Review"/><ref name="Matsui and Yamamoto">{{cite journal |last1=Matsui |first1=Tomoko |last2=Yamamoto |first2=Taeko |title=Developing sensitivity to the sources of information: Early use of the Japanese quotative particles tte and to in mother–child conversation |journal=Journal of Pragmatics |date=2013 |volume=59 |pages=5–25 |doi=10.1016/j.pragma.2013.06.008 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378216613001598|access-date=13 April 2020|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
[[File:Quotative Particle Ashita hareru tteto yo.png|thumb|Quotative Particle "-tte" and "to" in Japanese.]]
Japanese, for example, uses a sentence-final quotative particle ''tte'' verbally to mean "I heard (quote)" with some uncertainty. In sentence-medial position, ''tte'' is sometimes regarded along with ''to'' to be either a quotative particle or complementizer meaning "I heard (quote)" with less uncertainty and often more knowledge of the origin of the quote.

{{fs interlinear |lang=ja |indent=2
|c1= <ref name="Matsui and Yamamoto" />
| 明日  晴れる  -'''って'''
| ashita  hareru  '''tte'''.
| tomorrow  will-be-fine  QUOT
| "It will be fine tomorrow, I heard."
}}
{{fs interlinear |lang=ja |indent=2 |abbreviations=FP:final particle
|c1= <ref name="Matsui and Yamamoto" />
| 明日  晴れる  '''って'''/'''と'''  言ってた  よ
| ashita  hareru  '''-tte'''/'''to'''  itteta  yo.
| tomorrow  will-be-fine  QUOT  said  FP
| "(X) said that it would be fine tomorrow."
}}
Verbs of saying are highly restricted in Australian languages and almost always immediately proceed the complement verb.

{{interlinear |indent=2 |abbreviations=IRR:irregular
|top='''[[Ngarinyin language|Ngarinyin]] example'''
|c1= <ref name="DarcyA Review"/> 
| wurlan wurr-u-miyangga bud-ma-ra-ngarrugu
| word 3PL-FUT-know 3PL-say-PST-1PL.OBL.IRR
| "They will know this word" they said to us.
}}

====Quotative evidentials====
Quotative or hearsay evidentials provide knowledge of who or where information originated from in speech based on logical assumption. Languages indicate this in various ways: through grammatical marking, additional words and phrases, prosody, gestures, or systematic affixes of verbs. Quotative readings of evidentials are typologically rare. For example, English can express evidentials with an optional adverb, "''Allegedly'', Annie pulled the trigger." The interlocutor then knows the source of the quotation is from elsewhere, but this is not a quotative reading as there is no direct performative quoting or verbs of saying. Languages including Cusco Quechua, Kham, Tagalog, and Kaalallisut are documented as containing quotative evidentials. In languages with "true" quotative evidentials (which usually introduce quoted statements), it is also possible for them to occur with interrogatives and imperatives, yielding quoted interrogatives and quoted imperatives.<ref name="quechua"/><ref name="SRL Ev">{{cite journal |last1=San Roque |first1=Lila |title=Evidentiality |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |date=2019 |volume=48 |pages=353–370 |doi=10.1146/annurev-anthro-102218-011243 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Similar to quotative particles, quotative evidentials are usually [[grammaticalization|grammaticalized]] from full lexical verbs.<ref name="Chojnicka Latvian">{{cite journal |last1=Chojnicka |first1=Joanna |title=Latvian verbs of speaking and their relations to evidentiality |journal=Kalbotyra |issue=69 |pages=59–81}}</ref>

[[Nheengatu|Nhêengatú]], a Tupí-Guaraní [[lingua franca]] of North-West Amazonia, has a reported evidential marker ''paá''. An example scenario is as follows: X saw John go fishing. Mary then and asks X where John went. X replies "u-sú u-piniatika" (he went fishing). Later, Peter asks Mary where John went. She replies to Peter that she did not see John go herself, but rather heard it from a different source using the evidential marker "u-sú u-piniatika ''paá.''" <ref name="aikhenvald">Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y (2014). The grammar of knowledge: a cross-linguistic view of evidentials, and the expression of information source. Oxford University Press. p.4-5. {{ISBN|9780198701316}}</ref>

{{interlinear |indent=2 |abbreviations=REP:reported evidential marker
|c1= <ref name="aikhenvald"/>
| u-sú  u-piniatika  '''paá'''
| 3SG-go  3SG-fish  '''REP'''
| "He went fishing (they say/I was told)"
}}

[[File:Quotative Evidential Pitas Inesqa watukusqa.png|thumb|Quotative Evidential "=si" in Cusco Quechua.]]
[[Tagalog language|Tagalog's]] quotative evidentials are used with imperative quotations.<ref name="quechua" />

{{interlinear |indent=2 |abbreviations=REP:reported evidential marker; INF:infix
|c1= <ref name="quechua" />
| kumain (ka) '''daw'''
| eat.INF (you) '''REP'''
| Someone said: Eat!
}}

[[Cusco Quechua]]'s quotative evidential comes as a derivation of a [[clitic]], ''=si'', for interrogative quotations.<ref name="quechua" />

{{interlinear |indent=2 |abbreviations=REP:reported evidential marker
|c1= <ref name="quechua" />
| pi-ta{{=}}'''s'''  Inés-qa  watuku-sqa
| who-ACC{{=}}'''REP''' Inés-TOP  visit-PST
| 'Someone said: Who did Inés visit?'
}}