Editing Yuchi language (section)

== Grammar ==
Like many [[Indigenous languages of the Americas]], Yuchi grammar is [[Agglutinative language|agglutinative]].{{sfn|Speck|1909|p=16}} Words are formed by the addition of various prefixes and suffixes to a stem. Yuchi features separate male and female [[Register (sociolinguistics)|registers]]{{sfn|Gatschet|1885|p=253}} and an idiosyncratic noun classification system wherein nominal distinction is made regarding [[animacy]], Yuchi ethnicity, kinship and, for inanimate nouns, shape or spatial position.{{sfn|Wagner|1938}}

Much of the information in this section is drawn from Wagner (1938); some of Wagner's conclusions, particularly regarding his interpretation of Yuchi kinship terminology{{sfn|Speck|1939|p=171}} and certain aspects of his description of Yuchi pronouns,{{sfn|Ballard|1978}} have been disputed.

===Morphosyntax===
Yuchi is an [[Agglutination|agglutinative]] language, in which words are pieced together from pre-existing [[morphemes]] to make entirely new words. The word order of the language is [[subject–object–verb]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Euchee Language Project |url=http://eucheelp.org/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100322201758/http://www.eucheelp.org/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 22, 2010 |access-date=2009-09-12 |website=Euchee Language Project}}</ref>

The language uses clitics and particles to express a variety of things, including [[Possessive affix|possessives]], [[Cases (grammar)|cases]], [[affix]]es, [[idea]]s, [[Locative case|locatives]], [[Instrumental case|instrumentals]], [[Simulative case|simulatives]], [[Ablative case|ablatives]], and [[demonstrative]]s.{{sfn|Wolff|1948}}

===Verbs===
The Yuchi verb consists of a mono- or polysyllabic stem modified almost exclusively by suffixing.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=312}} Yuchi features [[attributive verb]]s, which is to say that the language makes very little distinction between verbs and adjectives as parts of speech. For this reason, Yuchi verbs and adjectives are virtually identical.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=343}}

====Tense====
The concept of temporal verb inflection is only weakly realized in Yuchi{{sfn|Speck|1909|p=15}} and corresponds more closely in some cases to [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]] rather than [[Grammatical tense|tense]]. The past tense is generally expressed via suffixing of the verb stem.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=351-352}}
*-djin{{in5|19}}incomplete past ("ate")
*-dji'nfwa{{in5|13}}complete past ("had eaten")
*-djinfa'{{in5|15}}habitual past ("used to eat")
*-djinfwadji'n{{in5|7}}emphatic past ("happened to eat")
*-djigo'{{in5|16}}uncertain past ("perhaps ate")

There are also two ways of expressing future tense. The first, which usually denotes intentions or events of the immediate future, is expressed by lengthening, stressing and nasalizing the final syllable of the verb stem. The second, pertaining to the distant future, is expressed by the suffix -''e'le''.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=352}}

====Modality====
Modality of the verb is also expressed through suffixing.{{Sfn|Wagner|1938|p=354}}
*-no &nbsp; &nbsp; imperative ("go!")
*-wo &nbsp; &nbsp; exhortative ("should go")
*-go &nbsp; &nbsp; potential ("might go")
*-ho &nbsp; &nbsp; emphatic ("did go")
*-te &nbsp; &nbsp; ability ("can go")

===Nouns===
Nouns are classified according to a broad animate versus inanimate paradigm{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=320}} which is expressed using a variety of article suffixes. Within the animate class, nouns are further subdivided into two sub-classes. The first of these includes all humans belonging to the Yuchi tribe, and is itself further divided according to a very complex system of kinship relations and gendered speech registers.{{sfn|Gatschet|1885|p=253}} The second sub-class of animate nouns encompasses all human beings outside of the Yuchi tribe, as well as animals, and the sun and moon.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=321}} The animate (Yuchi) suffixes express a very complex system of kinship and gendered speech,{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=326}} in much the same way as do third person pronouns.
*-no{{in5|11}}any male or female Yuchi (used by men and women)
*-sen'o{{in5|6}}any younger (for men, related) female (used by men and women)
*-s'en'o{{in5}}younger male relative (used by women only)
*-eno{{in5|8}}older female relative (used by men and women)
*-ono{{in5|8}}younger unrelated male or any other unrelated person (used by women only)
*-ino{{in5|9}}older male relative (used by women only)
*-weno'{{in5}}all other animate beings

Inanimate nouns are divided into three groups: vertical, horizontal, and round objects or those otherwise do not conform to either of the other two groups.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=321}} Each of these groups is represented by a suffix.
*-fa &nbsp; &nbsp; vertical
*-'e &nbsp; &nbsp; horizontal
*-dji &nbsp; &nbsp; round

====Number====
The concept of [[plural]]ity in Yuchi is not as strongly developed as in English,{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=310}} leading one early [[Linguistic description|descriptivist]] to claim that Yuchi has "no true plural."{{sfn|Speck|1909|p=15}} Animate nouns can, however, be pluralized by the addition of suffixes that correspond closely to their singular counterparts. Although tribal affiliation and [[Grammatical gender|gender]] distinctions carry over into the plural, kinship does not.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p= 322}}
*-he'no{{in5|6}}Yuchi tribe members (male speech)
*-o'no{{in5|8}}Yuchi tribe members (female speech)
*-we'no{{in5}}all other animate beings

Inanimate nouns can be made plural by the suffix ''-ha'', which replaces the singular inanimate suffixes listed above.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=323}}

In addition to suffixing, several words related to kinship are pluralized via [[reduplication]] of the stem.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p= 323}}

===Pronouns===
The Yuchi [[pronoun]] is extremely complex.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=311}} Except in a few emphatic forms,{{sfn|Speck|1909|p=15}} the pronoun is always suffixed to a verb or noun stem, and appears in eight distinct sets.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=324}}

The first pronoun set, termed the ''Subjective Series'',{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=325}} denotes the subject relationship of the pronoun to the verb.{{sfn|Ballard|1978|p=103}} Series 1 and 2 are close variations that respectively represent a general and specific object, whereas the "independent series" represents freestanding pronouns.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=325}}

::{| class="wikitable"
|+ Subjective Series
! || Subject Series 1 || Subject Series 2 || Independent
|-
! 1st Person Sing.
| di- || do- || di
|-
! 2nd Person Sing.
| ne- || yo- || tse
|}

Third person pronouns follow a complex pattern of kinship and gendered speech that corresponds very closely to the animate noun suffixes.
*ho- / ho- / hodi{{in5|8}}any male or female Yuchi (used by men and women)
*se- / sio- / sedi{{in5|8}}any younger (for men, related) female (used by men and women)
*s'e- / s'io- / s'edi{{in5}}younger male relative (used by women only)
*e- / eyo- / edi{{in5|10}}older female relative (used by men and women)
*o- / o- / odi{{in5|14}}younger unrelated male or any other unrelated person (used by women only)
*i-{{in5|29}}any older male relative (used by women only)
*we- / yo- / wedi'{{in5|6}}all animate, non-Yuchi beings

First person pronouns in the plural are [[Clusivity|inclusive and exclusive]], and there are several kinship-specific third person forms.

::{| class="wikitable"
! || Subject Series 1 || Subject Series 2 || Independent
|-
! 1st Person Pl.
| o- / no- || o- / no- || odi' / nodi'
|-
! 2nd Person Pl.
| a- || a'yo- || a'dze
|}

A few of the third person singular pronouns double as plural pronouns as well.
*ho- / ho- / hodi{{in5|8}}any male or female Yuchi (used by men and women)
*o- / o- / odi{{in5|14}}in the plural, refers to any younger Yuchi regardless of kinship or gender (used by women only)	
*i-{{in5|29}}in the plural, refers to any older Yuchi regardless of kinship or gender (used by women only)
*we- / yo- / wedi'{{in5|6}}all animate, non-Yuchi beings

The next set, termed the ''Objective Series'',{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p= 330}} denotes the direct or indirect object relationship of the pronoun to the verb.{{sfn|Ballard|1978|p=104}} It otherwise functions identically to the Subjective Series; the two pronoun sets are distinguished by their relative positions within the verb complex.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=330}}

::{| class="wikitable"
|+ Objective Series
! || Direct Series 1 || Direct Series 2 || Indirect
|-
! 1st Person Sing.
| di- || do- || di
|-
! 2nd Person Sing.
| ne- || yo- || tse
|}

The third person singular pronouns are identical to those of the Subjective Series.
*ho- / ho- / hodi{{in5|8}}any male or female Yuchi (used by men and women)
*se- / sio- / sedi{{in5|8}}any younger (for men, related) female (used by men and women)
*s'e- / s'io- / s'edi{{in5}}younger male relative (used by women only)
*e- / eyo- / edi{{in5|10}}older female relative (used by men and women)
*o- / o- / odi{{in5|14}}younger unrelated male or any other unrelated person (used by women only)	
*i-{{in5|29}}any older male relative (used by women only)
*we- / yo- / wedi'{{in5|6}}all animate, non-Yuchi beings

::{| class="wikitable"
! || Direct Series 1 || Direct Series 2 || Indirect
|-
! 1st Person Pl.
| ondze- / ondzio- || ondzio- / nondzio- || ontso / nonsto
|-
! 2nd Person Pl.
| andze- || andzio- || aso
|}

As above, the third person plural pronouns are identical to those of the Subjective Series.
*ho- / ho- / hodi{{in5|8}}any male or female Yuchi (used by men and women)
*o- / o- / odi{{in5|14}}in the plural, refers to any younger Yuchi regardless of kinship or gender (used by women only)	
*i-{{in5|29}}in the plural, refers to any older Yuchi regardless of kinship or gender (used by women only)
*we- / yo- / wedi'{{in5|6}}all animate, non-Yuchi beings

====Reflexive pronouns====
[[Reflexive pronoun]]s are amalgamations of the Objective Series 1 and Subjective Series 1 ("Reflexive Series 1") or Subjective Series 2 ("Reflexive Series 2") pronouns.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=333}}

::{| class="wikitable"
! || Reflexive Series 1 || Reflexive Series 2
|-
! 1st Person Sing.
| tse di- || do'-
|-
! 2nd Person Sing.
| nendze ne'- || yo'-
|}

Reflexive third person pronouns function the same, in terms of kinship and gendered speech, as their non-reflexive counterparts.
*hode'- / hondio'-{{in5|8}}any male or female Yuchi (used by men and women)
*siode'- / siodio'-{{in5|9}}any younger (for men, related) female (used by men and women)
*s'iode'- / s'iodio'-{{in5|8}}younger male relative (used by women only)
*e'yode- / eyondio'-{{in5}}older female relative (used by men and women)
*ode'- / odio'-{{in5|15}}younger unrelated male or any other unrelated person (used by women only)	
*yode'- / yondio'-{{in5|10}}any older male relative (used by women only)

Plural reflexive pronouns demonstrate clusivity in the first person, and are identical to non-reflexives in terms of kinship and gendered speech.

::{| class="wikitable"
|-
! || Reflexive Series 1 || Reflexive Series 2
|-
! 1st Person Pl.
| ondzeo'- / nondzeno'- || ondzeo'- / nondzeno'-
|-
! 2nd Person Pl.
| andzea'- || andzea'yo-
|}

Plural reflexive pronouns function identically to their non-reflexive counterparts in the third person.
*hode'- / hondio'-{{in5|8}}any male or female Yuchi (used by men and women)
*ode'- / odio'-{{in5|14}}in the plural, refers to any younger Yuchi regardless of kinship or gender (used by women only)	
*yode'- / yondio'-{{in5|8}}in the plural, refers to any older Yuchi regardless of kinship or gender (used by women only)

===Other affixes===

====Instrumental prefixes====
The relationship between an action and the instrument by which it is carried out is expressed via the prefix {{lang|yuc|hi-}}. This prefix has become fused in some cases with certain verb stems, forming a sort of instrumental verbal compound of idiomatic meaning.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=358}}

====Locative affixes====
The concept of location is important to the Yuchi verb complex. Similar in some ways to the English [[preposition]], these prefixes denote the location or direction of the verb's action.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=358}}

{|class=wikitable
|+Locative Prefixes
!Prefix !! Gloss
|-
|{{lang|yuc|a-}} || static location
|-
|{{lang|yuc|ti-}} || inside of an object
|-
|{{lang|yuc|f'o-}} || inside the earth or under water
|-
|{{lang|yuc|toya-}} || into water
|-
|{{lang|yuc|ta-}} || on top of
|-
|{{lang|yuc|po-}} || under
|-
|{{lang|yuc|kya-}} || through
|-
|{{lang|yuc|la-}} || out of
|-
|{{lang|yuc|pe-}} || above or over
|-
|{{lang|yuc|yu-}} || up in the air
|-
|{{lang|yuc|ya-}} || across
|}

Additionally, there are four very general locative suffixes that can be used in place of the prefixes listed above.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=324}}
{|class=wikitable
|+Locative Suffixes
!Suffix !! Gloss
|-
|{{lang|yuc|-he}} || on, at, away from
|-
|{{lang|yuc|-le}} || along, back to
|-
|{{lang|yuc|-ke}} || over there
|-
|{{lang|yuc|-fa}} || to, towards
|}

===Negation===
An entire verbal complex can be negated using one of two prefixes, {{lang|yuc|na-}} or {{lang|yuc|ha-}}, both of which are identical in meaning.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=361}}

===Interrogatives===
In direct speech wherein the sentence does not begin with an interrogative pronoun, interrogatives are formed with the suffix {{lang|yuc|-le}}. If the question implies some action in the future, the suffix {{lang|yuc|-yi}} is used instead.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=357}}