Editing Behaviorism (section)

===Behavior analysis===
{{main|Applied behavior analysis}}
[[Applied behavior analysis]] (ABA)—also called behavioral engineering—is a scientific discipline that applies the principles of behavior analysis to change behavior. ABA derived from much earlier research in the ''[[Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior]]'', which was founded by B.F. Skinner and his colleagues at [[Harvard University]]. Nearly a decade after the study "The psychiatric nurse as a behavioral engineer" (1959) was published in that journal, which demonstrated how effective the [[token economy]] was in reinforcing more adaptive behavior for hospitalized patients with [[schizophrenia]] and [[intellectual disability]], it led to researchers at the [[University of Kansas]] to start the ''[[Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis]]'' in 1968.

Although ABA and [[behavior modification]] are similar behavior-change technologies in that the learning environment is modified through respondent and operant conditioning, behavior modification did not initially address the causes of the behavior (particularly, the environmental stimuli that occurred in the past), or investigate solutions that would otherwise prevent the behavior from reoccurring. As the evolution of ABA began to unfold in the mid-1980s, functional behavior assessments (FBAs) were developed to clarify the function of that behavior, so that it is accurately determined which differential reinforcement contingencies will be most effective and less likely for [[aversive]] [[punishment]]s to be administered.<ref name="JEAB2010">{{Cite journal |last1=Mace, F. Charles |last2=Critchfield, Thomas S. |date=May 2010 |title=Translational research in behavior analysis: Historic traditions and imperative for the future |journal=[[Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior]] |volume=93 |issue=3 |pages=293–312 |doi=10.1901/jeab.2010.93-293 |pmc=2861871 |pmid=21119847}}</ref><ref name="JABA1994">{{Cite journal |last=Mace, F. Charles |date=1994 |title=The significance and future of functional analysis methodologies |journal=[[Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis]] |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=385–392 |doi=10.1901/jaba.1994.27-385 |pmc=1297814 |pmid=16795830}}</ref><ref name="JABA1999">{{Cite journal |last1=Pelios, L. |last2=Morren, J. |last3=Tesch, D. |last4=Axelrod, S. |date=1999 |title=The impact of functional analysis methodology on treatment choice for self-injurious and aggressive behavior |journal=Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=185–95 |doi=10.1901/jaba.1999.32-185 |pmc=1284177 |pmid=10396771}}</ref> In addition, methodological behaviorism was the theory underpinning behavior modification since private events were not conceptualized during the 1970s and early 1980s, which contrasted from the radical behaviorism of behavior analysis. ABA—the term that replaced behavior modification—has emerged into a thriving field.<ref name=JEAB2010/><ref name="behavioranalyst">{{Cite journal |last1=Slocum, Timothy A. |last2=Detrich, Ronnie |last3=Wilczynski, Susan M. |last4=Spencer, Trina D. |last5=Lewis, Teri |date=May 2014 |title=The evidence-based practice of applied behavior analysis |journal=[[The Behavior Analyst]] |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=41–56 |doi=10.1007/s40614-014-0005-2 |pmc=4883454 |pmid=27274958}}</ref>

The independent development of behaviour analysis outside the United States also continues to develop.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kellaway |first=Lucy |date=7 January 2015 |title=My team gets more excited by loo roll than business budgets: Work problems answered |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/a06bab2a-8ab7-11e4-8e24-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3sEMws3TI |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210221258/https://www.ft.com/content/a06bab2a-8ab7-11e4-8e24-00144feabdc0#axzz3sEMws3TI |archive-date=10 December 2022 |access-date=22 November 2015 |work=Financial Times |location=London |page=10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Eyres |first=Harry |date=19 December 2009 |title=Peaks in a trough year: The Slow Lane |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/ec975ad6-e9cb-11de-ae43-00144feab49a,Authorised=false.html?siteedition=uk&_i_location=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2Fec975ad6-e9cb-11de-ae43-00144feab49a.html%3Fsiteedition%3Duk&_i_referer=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.ft.com%2Fsearch%3FqueryText%3DPeaks%2Bin%2Ba%2Btrough%2BEYRES&classification=conditional_standard&iab=barrier-app |access-date=22 November 2015 |work=Financial Times |page=22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Stern |first=Stefan |date=5 August 2008 |title=Keep up motivation levels through long summer days |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/8e995bca-6284-11dd-9a1e-000077b07658,Authorised=false.html?siteedition=uk&_i_location=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2F8e995bca-6284-11dd-9a1e-000077b07658.html%3Fsiteedition%3Duk&_i_referer=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.ft.com%2Fsearch%3FqueryText%3DKeep%2Bup%2Bmotivation%2Blevels%2Bstern&classification=conditional_standard&iab=barrier-app#axzz3sEMws3TI |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122232423/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/8e995bca-6284-11dd-9a1e-000077b07658,Authorised=false.html?siteedition=uk&_i_location=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2F8e995bca-6284-11dd-9a1e-000077b07658.html%3Fsiteedition%3Duk&_i_referer=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.ft.com%2Fsearch%3FqueryText%3DKeep%2Bup%2Bmotivation%2Blevels%2Bstern&classification=conditional_standard&iab=barrier-app#axzz3sEMws3TI |archive-date=2015-11-22 |access-date=22 November 2015 |work=Financial Times |location=London |page=12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Skapinker |first=Michael |date=11 December 2002 |title=Human capitalism: Does treating workers well help business too? A PwC report provides some evidence |work=Financial Times |location=London |page=22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Skapinker |first=Michael |date=9 April 2013 |title=The 50 ideas that shaped business today |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/90c6cac0-a02f-11e2-88b6-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3sEMws3TI |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210221215/https://www.ft.com/content/90c6cac0-a02f-11e2-88b6-00144feabdc0#axzz3sEMws3TI |archive-date=10 December 2022 |access-date=22 November 2015 |work=Financial Times |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=24 October 2015 |title=Reinventing the deal; American capitalism |newspaper=The Economist |location=London |pages=21–24 |volume=417 |issue=8961}}</ref> In the US, the [[American Psychological Association]] (APA) features a subdivision for Behavior Analysis, titled APA Division 25: Behavior Analysis, which has been in existence since 1964, and the interests among behavior analysts today are wide-ranging, as indicated in a review of the 30 Special Interest Groups (SIGs) within the [[Association for Behavior Analysis International]] (ABAI). Such interests include everything from animal behavior and [[behavioral ecology|environmental conservation]] to classroom instruction (such as [[direct instruction]] and [[precision teaching]]), [[verbal behavior]], developmental disabilities and autism, clinical psychology (i.e., [[Criminology|forensic behavior analysis]]), [[behavioral medicine]] (i.e., behavioral gerontology, AIDS prevention, and fitness training), and [[Consumer behaviour|consumer behavior analysis]].

The field of [[Animal training|applied animal behavior]]—a sub-discipline of ABA that involves training animals—is regulated by the Animal Behavior Society, and those who practice this technique are called applied animal behaviorists. Research on applied animal behavior has been frequently conducted in the ''Applied Animal Behaviour Science'' journal since its founding in 1974.

ABA has also been particularly well-established in the area of developmental disabilities since the 1960s, but it was not until the late 1980s that individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders were beginning to grow so rapidly and groundbreaking research was being published that parent advocacy groups started demanding for services throughout the 1990s, which encouraged the formation of the Behavior Analyst Certification Board, a credentialing program that certifies professionally trained behavior analysts on the national level to deliver such services. Nevertheless, the certification is applicable to all human services related to the rather broad field of behavior analysis (other than the treatment for autism), and the ABAI currently has 14 accredited MA and Ph.D. programs for comprehensive study in that field.

Early behavioral interventions (EBIs) based on ABA are empirically validated for teaching children with autism and have been proven as such for over the past five decades. Since the late 1990s and throughout the twenty-first century, early ABA interventions have also been identified as the treatment of choice by the [[Surgeon General of the United States|US Surgeon General]], [[American Academy of Pediatrics]], and US [[National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine#Program units|National Research Council]].

[[Discrete trial training]]—also called early ''intensive'' behavioral intervention—is the traditional EBI technique implemented for thirty to forty hours per week that instructs a child to sit in a chair, imitate fine and gross motor behaviors, as well as learn eye contact and speech, which are taught through [[shaping (psychology)|shaping]], [[modeling (psychology)|modeling]], and [[Errorless learning|prompting]], with such prompting being phased out as the child begins mastering each skill. When the child becomes more verbal from discrete trials, the table-based instructions are later discontinued, and another EBI procedure known as incidental teaching is introduced in the natural environment by having the child ask for desired items kept out of their direct access, as well as allowing the child to choose the play activities that will motivate them to engage with their facilitators before teaching the child how to interact with other children their own age.

A related term for incidental teaching, called [[pivotal response treatment]] (PRT), refers to EBI procedures that exclusively entail twenty-five hours per week of naturalistic teaching (without initially using discrete trials). Current research is showing that there is a wide array of learning styles and that is the children with [[receptive language]] delays who initially require discrete trials to acquire speech.

[[Organizational behavior management]], which applies contingency management procedures to model and reinforce appropriate work behavior for employees in organizations, has developed a particularly strong following within ABA, as evidenced by the formation of the OBM Network and ''Journal of Organizational Behavior Management'', which was rated the third-highest impact journal in applied psychology by ISI JOBM rating.

Modern-day [[clinical behavior analysis]] has also witnessed a massive resurgence in research, with the development of [[relational frame theory]] (RFT), which is described as an extension of verbal behavior and a "post-Skinnerian account of language and cognition."<ref>Hayes, S.C.; Barnes-Holmes, D. & Roche, B. (2001) Relational Frame Theory: A Post-Skinnerian account of human language and cognition. Kluwer Academic: New York.</ref><ref name="Blackledge" /><ref name="Dymond-2010" /><ref name="Rehfeldt-2011" /> RFT also forms the empirical basis for [[acceptance and commitment therapy]], a therapeutic approach to counseling often used to manage such conditions as [[generalized anxiety disorder|anxiety]] and [[obesity]] that consists of acceptance and commitment, value-based living, cognitive defusion, [[counterconditioning]] ([[mindfulness]]), and contingency management ([[positive reinforcement]]).<ref>Corrigan, P. W. (2001). Getting ahead of the data: A Threat to some behavior therapies. ''The Behavior Therapist, 24''(9), 189-193.[https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2002-12440-002]</ref><ref>Hayes, S. C. (2002). On being visited by the vita police: A reply to Corrigan. ''The Behavior Therapist, 25'', 134-137.[https://contextualscience.org/publications/hayes_2002_1]</ref><ref>Corrigan, P. (2002). The data is still the thing: A reply to Gaynor and Hayes. ''The Behavior Therapist, 25'', 140.[https://contextualscience.org/publications/corrigan_2002]</ref><ref>Powers, M.B., Vörding, M. & Emmelkamp, P.M.G. (2009). Acceptance and commitment therapy: A meta-analytic review. ''Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 8'', 73-80.</ref><ref>Levin, M., & Hayes, S.C. (2009). Is Acceptance and commitment therapy superior to established treatment comparisons? ''Psychotherapy & Psychosomatics, 78'', 380.</ref><ref>Powers, M. B., & Emmelkamp, P. M. G. (2009). Response to 'Is acceptance and commitment therapy superior to established treatment comparisons?' ''Psychotherapy & Psychosomatics, 78'', 380–381.</ref> Another evidence-based counseling technique derived from RFT is the [[functional analytic psychotherapy]] known as [[behavioral activation]] that relies on the [[Functional analytic psychotherapy#The ACL model|ACL model]]—awareness, courage, and love—to reinforce more positive moods for those struggling with [[major depressive disorder|depression]].

[[Incentive]]-based contingency management (CM) is the standard of care for adults with substance-use disorders; it has also been shown to be highly effective for other addictions (i.e., obesity and gambling). Although it does not directly address the underlying causes of behavior, incentive-based CM is highly behavior analytic as it targets the function of the client's motivational behavior by relying on a preference assessment, which is an assessment procedure that allows the individual to select the preferred reinforcer (in this case, the monetary value of the voucher, or the use of other incentives, such as prizes). Another evidence-based CM intervention for substance abuse is [[community reinforcement approach and family training]] that uses FBAs and counterconditioning techniques—such as behavioral skills training and relapse prevention—to model and reinforce healthier lifestyle choices which promote self-management of abstinence from drugs, alcohol, or cigarette smoking during high-risk exposure when engaging with family members, friends, and co-workers.

While schoolwide positive behavior support consists of conducting assessments and a [[task analysis]] plan to differentially reinforce curricular supports that replace students' disruptive behavior in the classroom, pediatric feeding therapy incorporates a liquid chaser and chin feeder to shape proper eating behavior for children with feeding disorders. [[Habit reversal training]], an approach firmly grounded in counterconditioning which uses contingency management procedures to reinforce alternative behavior, is currently the only empirically validated approach for managing [[tic disorders]].

Some studies on exposure ([[desensitization (psychology)|desensitization]]) therapies—which refer to an array of interventions based on the respondent conditioning procedure known as [[habituation]] and typically infuses counterconditioning procedures, such as [[meditation]] and [[Diaphragmatic breathing|breathing exercises]]—have recently been published in behavior analytic journals since the 1990s, as most other research is conducted from a [[cognitive-behavioral therapy|cognitive-behavior therapy]] framework. When based on a behavior analytic research standpoint, FBAs are implemented to precisely outline how to employ the [[flooding (psychology)|flooding]] form of desensitization (also called direct exposure therapy) for those who are unsuccessful in overcoming their specific [[phobia]] through [[systematic desensitization]] (also known as [[graduated exposure therapy]]). These studies also reveal that systematic desensitization is more effective for children if used in conjunction with shaping, which is further termed ''contact'' desensitization, but this comparison has yet to be substantiated with adults.

Other widely published behavior analytic journals include ''Behavior Modification'', ''The Behavior Analyst'', ''Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions'', ''Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science'', ''The Analysis of Verbal Behavior'', ''Behavior and Philosophy'', ''Behavior and Social Issues'', and ''[[The Psychological Record]]''.