Editing Bystander effect (section)

==Notable examples==
===Kitty Genovese===
{{main|Murder of Kitty Genovese}}
On March 13, 1964, 28-year-old bartender Catherine "Kitty" Genovese was stabbed, sexually assaulted, and murdered while walking home from work at 3&nbsp;a.m. in [[Queens, New York]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Kitty Genovese murder and the social psychology of helping: The parable of the 38 witnesses.|journal = American Psychologist|pages = 555–562|volume = 62|issue = 6|doi = 10.1037/0003-066x.62.6.555|first1 = Rachel|last1 = Manning|first2 = Mark|last2 = Levine|first3 = Alan|last3 = Collins|pmid=17874896|date=September 2007|citeseerx = 10.1.1.210.6010}}</ref> The case is widely known for originally stimulating social psychological research into the "bystander effect". According to a sensationalized article in ''[[The New York Times]]'', 38 witnesses watched the stabbings but did not intervene or even call the police until after the attacker fled and Genovese had died.<ref name="nytimesarticle">{{cite news|last=Gansberg|first=Martin|title=37 Who Saw Murder Didn't Call the Police|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/03/27/37-who-saw-murder-didnt-call-the-police.html|access-date= December 30, 2017|work=The New York Times|date=March 27, 1964}}</ref>

The shocking account drew widespread public attention and many newspaper editorials. Psychology researchers Latané and Darley attributed the lack of help by witnesses to [[diffusion of responsibility]]: because each witness saw others witnessing the same event, they assumed that the others would be taking responsibility and calling the police, and therefore did nothing to stop the situation themselves.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility|journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|pages = 377–383|volume = 8|issue = 4, Pt.1|doi = 10.1037/h0025589|pmid = 5645600|first1 = John M.|last1 = Darley|first2 = Bibb|last2 = Latane|year = 1968| s2cid=9665680 }}</ref>

An article published in ''[[American Psychologist]]'' in 2007 found that the story of Genovese's murder had been exaggerated by the media. There were far fewer than 38 eyewitnesses, the police were called at least once during the attack, and many of the bystanders who overheard the attack could not actually see the event.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Manning |first1=R. |last2=Levine |first2=M. |last3=Collins |first3=A. |year=2007 |url=http://www.psych.lancs.ac.uk/people/uploads/MarkLevine20070604T095238.pdf |title=The Kitty Genovese murder and the social psychology of helping: The parable of the 38 witnesses |journal=[[American Psychologist]] |volume=62 |issue=6 |pages=555–562 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.62.6.555 |pmid=17874896 |access-date=2008-11-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928071553/http://www.psych.lancs.ac.uk/people/uploads/MarkLevine20070604T095238.pdf |archive-date=2011-09-28 |url-status=dead |citeseerx=10.1.1.210.6010 }}</ref> In 2016, ''The New York Times'' called its own reporting "flawed", stating that the original story "grossly exaggerated the number of witnesses and what they had perceived".<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/05/nyregion/winston-moseley-81-killer-of-kitty-genovese-dies-in-prison.html | title=Winston Moseley, 81, Killer of Kitty Genovese, Dies in Prison | first=Robert D. | last=McFadden | newspaper=The New York Times | date=April 4, 2016}}.</ref>

=== Jane Doe of Richmond High ===
{{main|2009 Richmond High School gang rape}}
On October 24, 2009, a female student of [[Richmond High School (Richmond, California)|Richmond High School]] was gang-raped and beaten by a group of boys and men after a classmate invited her to a dark courtyard outside the school's [[Homecoming|homecoming dance]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=114287592|title=What Bystanders Do When They Witness Violence|website=NPR.org|language=en|access-date=2019-08-22}}</ref> It was reported that she was treated politely and drank brandy with the group before the assault took place, which lasted two and a half hours before a young woman notified the police.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna33499936|title=Police: Up to 20 people witnessed gang rape|via=[[Associated Press]]|first=Noah |last=Berger |date=28 October 2009|website=msnbc.com|language=en|access-date=2019-08-22}}</ref> As many as 20 people witnessed the incident, with several reportedly cheering and videotaping it.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Health/MindMoodNews/bystanders-teen-raped/story?id=8948465|title=How Could People Watch Rape 'Like an Exhibit'?|website=ABC News|language=en|access-date=2019-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://richmondconfidential.org/2009/11/05/knowledge-not-emotion-stops-rape/|title=Knowledge – not emotion – stops rape|date=2009-11-05|website=Richmond Confidential|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.salon.com/2009/10/30/richmond_rape/|title=Blaming the gang rape victim|date=2009-10-30|website=Salon|language=en|access-date=2019-08-22}}</ref> She was hospitalised for scrapes and bruises all over her face and body, and later sustained scars from cigarette burns on her back, as well as hips that regularly pop out of place. The case drew nationwide outrage.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mercurynews.com/2013/06/17/richmond-high-gang-rape-victim-takes-the-stand/|title=Richmond High gang rape victim takes the stand|date=2013-06-17|website=The Mercury News|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sfgate.com/crime/article/Richmond-gang-rape-victim-takes-stand-4605649.php|title=Richmond gang-rape victim takes stand|last=Lee|first=Henry K.|date=2013-06-17|website=SFGate|access-date=2019-08-22}}</ref>

===Raymond Zack===
{{main|Death of Raymond Zack}}
On May 30, 2011 ([[Memorial Day]]), 53-year-old Raymond Zack, of [[Alameda, California]], walked into the waters off Robert Crown Memorial Beach and stood neck deep in water roughly 150 yards offshore for almost an hour. His foster mother, Dolores Berry, called 9-1-1 and said that he was trying to drown himself. (There are conflicting reports about Zack's intentions.{{efn|Many issues about this incident are disputed. Roughly one year after the incident, Raymond Zack's family filed a "Failure of Duty" lawsuit against the City of Alameda and the County of Alameda.}}) Firefighters and police responded but did not enter the water. The firefighters called for a United States Coast Guard boat to respond to the scene. According to police reports, Alameda police expected the firefighters to enter the water.{{efn|Alameda police released redacted police reports to the media after the event that confirm this.}} Firefighters later said that they did not have current training and certifications to perform land-based water rescue. Dozens of civilians on the beach, and watching from their homes across from the beach, did not enter the water, apparently expecting public safety officers to conduct a rescue. Eventually, Zack collapsed in the water, apparently from hypothermia. Even then, nobody entered the water for several minutes. Finally, a [[good samaritan law|good samaritan]] entered the water and pulled Zack to shore. Zack died afterwards at a local hospital.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://sanfrancisco.cbslocal.com/2011/06/08/alameda-police-release-memorial-day-drowning-911-calls/ |title=Alameda Police Release Memorial Day Drowning 911 Calls |date= 2011-06-08 |location=San Francisco}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://ethicsalarms.com/2011/06/01/the-death-of-raymond-zack-no-heroes-only-bystanders-in-san-francisco/ |title=The Death of Raymond Zack: No Heroes, Only Bystanders |date= 2011-06-01 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://letters.ocregister.com/2011/06/10/america-must-take-care-of-its-own/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611021801/http://letters.ocregister.com/2011/06/10/america-must-take-care-of-its-own/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-06-11 |title=Such callous disregard for life |date=2011-06-10 |location=Orange County }}</ref>

===Jane Doe of Philadelphia===
{{main|October 2021 sexual assault on SEPTA train}}
On October 13, 2021, a passenger was sexually harassed and eventually raped by another rider on a [[SEPTA]] train in [[Philadelphia]], with several bystanders in the area purportedly witnessing the incident, even allegedly recording the assault on their phones, and failing to alert authorities or stop the assault until one off-duty employee called 911 after boarding the train and noticing the attack. The sexual assault, which went on for nearly 40 minutes, as well as the passengers' apparent lack of action, was recorded on SEPTA [[surveillance video]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Riders held up cellphones as woman was raped on Philadelphia train, police say |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/train-riders-held-cellphones-woman-was-raped-septa-police-say-n1281836 |access-date=2021-10-29 |website=NBC News |date=19 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref> After the initial 911 call, a SEPTA officer boarded the train when it arrived at the [[69th Street Transportation Center]], arresting the suspect after pulling him off the victim.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Sheehan |first1=Brian |last2=McCrone |first2=Brian X. |title='No One Did Anything': Woman Raped on SEPTA Train and Riders Didn't Call 911, Police Say |url=https://www.nbcphiladelphia.com/news/local/suspect-arrested-for-sex-assault-on-el-train-in-upper-darby-septa-says/2993609/ |access-date=2021-10-29 |website=NBC10 Philadelphia |date=15 October 2021 |language=en-US}}</ref>

This assault gained international attention for the passengers' apparent lack of action,<ref name="USAToday">{{Cite web |last=Hayes |first=Christal |date=2021-10-19 |title='Angry and disgusted': Train riders held up phones, didn't call 911 as woman was raped on Philadelphia train, police say |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2021/10/19/rape-train-philadelphia-occurred-while-bystanders-held-up-phones/8523134002/ |access-date=2021-12-11 |website=USA TODAY |language=en-US}}</ref> though some scholars argued that the bystanders simply did not know what to do in that instance.<ref name="PBS Philly">{{Cite web |last=Rizzo |first=Emily |date=2021-10-25 |title=Simple actions can disrupt assault. Here's what you can do |url=https://whyy.org/articles/a-rape-on-a-septa-train-forced-a-conversation-about-how-to-disrupt-assult-heres-what-experts-say-you-should-do/ |access-date=2021-12-11 |website=WHYY |language=en-US}}</ref> According to SEPTA general manager [[Leslie Richards]], the arrest occurred 3 minutes after the initial 911 call, which happened after the victim had been harassed for more than half an hour. The organization eventually released a statement, saying "There were other people on the train who witnessed this horrific act, and it may have been stopped sooner if a rider called 911."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Levenson |first=Eric |date=2021-10-19 |title=A woman on a SEPTA train was sexually assaulted while other riders failed to intervene, authorities say |url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/10/18/us/philadelphia-train-rape/index.html |access-date=2021-10-29 |website=CNN}}</ref> However, [[Delaware County, Pennsylvania|Delaware County]] District Attorney Jack Stollsteimer refuted the claim that the bystanders were filming the assault, countering that many of the bystanders may not have understood what they were seeing.<ref>{{cite web |title=Narrative of riders filming SEPTA train rape is false, Delaware County DA says |url=https://www.fox29.com/news/narrative-of-riders-filming-septa-train-rape-is-false-delaware-county-da-says |website=Fox 29 |date=22 October 2021 |publisher=Associated Press}}</ref>

===Piang Ngaih Don===
{{main|Murder of Piang Ngaih Don}}
In July 2016, a 24-year-old [[Myanmar]] citizen and [[domestic maid]] [[Piang Ngaih Don]] was [[maid abuse|abused]] and murdered by her employer Gaiyathiri Murugayan and Gaiyathiri's mother Prema S. Naraynasamy. Both Gaiyathiri and Prema were arrested and charged with murder,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://tnp.straitstimes.com/news/singapore/two-women-charged-murder|title=Two women charged with murder|website=The New Paper|location=Singapore|date=29 July 2016|access-date=4 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://mothership.sg/2021/02/maid-killer-husband-policeman/|title=Husband of maid killer suspended from S'pore police force since 2016 faces multiple charges|website=Mothership|location=Singapore|date=24 February 2021|access-date=4 May 2022}}</ref> while a third accomplice, Gaiyathiri's husband Kevin Chelvam who was then a police officer, was also charged with maid abuse and his police duties were suspended in view of his criminal proceedings. Subsequently, Gaiyathiri was sentenced to 30 years' imprisonment in June 2021 for a lower charge of [[culpable homicide]] not amounting to murder.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts-crime/30-years-jail-for-woman-who-starved-and-tortured-maid-to-death|title=30 years' jail for woman who starved and tortured Myanmar maid to death|website=The Straits Times|location=Singapore|date=22 June 2021|access-date=4 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.todayonline.com/singapore/30-years-jail-woman-who-killed-maid-starving-abusing-her-almost-daily-9-months|title=30 years' jail for woman who killed maid by starving, abusing her almost daily for 9 months|website=Today|location=Singapore|date=22 June 2021|access-date=4 May 2022}}</ref> Prema was convicted of multiple charges of maid abuse and destroying evidence and sentenced to 17 years' imprisonment in 2023.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://mustsharenews.com/mother-abusing-helper/|title= Mother Who Joined Daughter In Abusing Myanmar Helper To Death Gets 14 Years' Jail |website=Must Share News|date=9 January 2023|access-date=9 January 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.channelnewsasia.com/singapore/prema-s-naraynasamy-jail-myanmar-maid-piang-ngaih-don-death-son-law-kevin-chelvam-remove-cctv-evidence-3586511 |title= Fatal Myanmar maid abuse: More jail time for woman who asked police officer son-in-law to remove CCTV recorder |website=CNA |date=26 June 2023}}</ref>

The case invoked public outrage, shock and anger over the extensive cruelty of the case and death of the maid. Piang's case also demonstrated chilling similarities and comparisons to [[Murder of Kitty Genovese|Kitty Genovese's murder]] and the existence of the bystander effect, as it was discovered that during the regular health-checks at the hospital and the maid agency, there were people who suspected that Piang may have been abused but Gaiyathiri and her family denied them; no police report was made in relation to these suspected signs of maid abuse.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/commentary/myanmar-maid-death-bishan-domestic-worker-abuse-singapore-252286|title=Commentary: Myanmar domestic worker's death and the problem with the bystander effect|newspaper=CNA|date=4 March 2021|access-date=4 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/commentary/myanmar-domestic-helper-death-abuse-employers-ignorance-323761|title=Commentary: Pluralistic ignorance and why overcoming it can prevent abuse of domestic workers|newspaper=CNA|date=13 March 2021|access-date=4 May 2022}}</ref>