Editing Chinese architecture (section)

==Construction==

===Materials and history===
[[File:Earthenware architecture models, Eastern Han Dynasty, 3.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Models of watchtowers and other buildings made during the [[Eastern Han dynasty]] (AD 25–220); while these models were made of ceramics, the real versions were made of easily perishable wood and have not survived.]]
Wood was typically utilised as a primary building material. Also, Chinese culture holds that life connects with nature and that humans should interact with animated things. By contrast stone was associated with the homes of the dead.<ref>Li, Lin; Tang, Lei; Zhu, Haihong; Zhang, Hang; Yang, Fan; and Wenmin Qin (2017). ''Semantic 3D Modeling Based on CityGML for Ancient Chinese-Style Architectural Roofs of Digital Heritage'' (http://www.mdpi.com/2220-9964/6/5/132/htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180609035251/http://www.mdpi.com/2220-9964/6/5/132/htm |date=9 June 2018 }}). Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.</ref> However, unlike other building materials, wooden structures are less durable. The [[Songyue Pagoda]] (built in 523) is China's oldest extant ''pagoda''; its use of [[brick]] instead of wood allowed it to endure across the centuries. From the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907) onwards, brick and stone architecture gradually became more common. The earliest examples of this transition can be seen in building projects such as the [[Zhaozhou Bridge]] completed in 605 or the [[Xumi Pagoda]] built in 636. Some stone and brick architecture was used in subterranean tomb architecture of earlier dynasties.

[[File:Gao Yi Que2.jpg|thumb|200px|A stone-carved pillar-gate, or ''[[que (tower)|que]]'' (闕), {{convert|6|m|ft|abbr=on}} in total height, located at the tomb of Gao Yi in Ya'an, [[Sichuan]] province, [[Eastern Han dynasty]] (25–220 AD);<ref>Liu, Xujie (2002). "The Qin and Han Dynasties" in ''Chinese Architecture'', 33–60. Edited by Nancy S. Steinhardt. New Haven: Yale University Press. {{ISBN|0-300-09559-7}}. Page 55.</ref> notice the stone-carved decorations of roof [[tile]] eaves, despite the fact that Han dynasty stone ''que'' (part of the walled structures around tomb entrances) lacked wooden or ceramic components (but often imitated wooden buildings with ceramic roof tiles).<ref>Steinhardt, Nancy N. (2005). "Pleasure tower model," in Recarving China's Past: Art, Archaeology, and Architecture of the 'Wu Family Shrines', 275–281. Edited by Naomi Noble Richard. New Haven and London: Yale University Press and [[Princeton University Art Museum]]. {{ISBN|0-300-10797-8}}. Pages 279–280.</ref>]]
[[File:Han Dynasty Granary west of Dunhuang.jpg|thumb|These [[rammed earth]] ruins of a [[granary]] in Hecang Fortress (Chinese: 河仓城;  Pinyin: Hécāngchéng), located ~11 km (7 miles) northeast of the [[Yumen Pass]], were built during the [[Western Han]] (202 BC – 9 AD) and significantly rebuilt during the [[Western Jin]] (280–316 AD).<ref>Wang Xudang, [[Li Zuixiong]], and Zhang Lu (2010). "Condition, Conservation, and Reinforcement of the Yumen Pass and Hecang Earthen Ruins Near Dunhuang", in Neville Agnew (ed), ''Conservation of Ancient Sites on the Silk Road: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the Conservation of Grotto Sites, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, People's Republic of China, June 28 – July 3, 2004'', 351–357. Los Angeles: The Getty Conservation Institute, J. Paul Getty Trust. {{ISBN|978-1-60606-013-1}}, pp 351–352.</ref>]]
In the early 20th century no known fully wood-constructed Tang dynasty buildings still existed; the oldest so far discovered was the 1931 find of Guanyin Pavilion at [[Dule Monastery]], dated 984 during the Song dynasty.<ref name="steinhardt 2004 228">Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman. "The Tang Architectural Icon and the Politics of Chinese Architectural History," ''The Art Bulletin'' (Volume 86, Number 2, 2004): 228–254. Page 228.</ref> Later architectural historians [[Liang Sicheng]], Lin Huiyin, Mo Zongjiang, discovered that the Great East Hall of [[Foguang Temple]] on [[Mount Wutai]] in [[Shanxi]] dated to 857.<ref name="steinhardt 2004 228"/> The ground floor of this monastic hall measures {{convert|34|by|17.66|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name="steinhardt 2004 233">Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman. "The Tang Architectural Icon and the Politics of Chinese Architectural History," ''The Art Bulletin'' (Volume 86, Number 2, 2004): 228–254. Page 233.</ref> The main hall of nearby [[Nanchan Temple (Wutai)|Nanchan Temple]] on Mount Wutai was later dated to 782.<ref name="steinhardt 228 229">Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman. "The Tang Architectural Icon and the politics of Chinese Architectural History," ''The Art Bulletin'' (Volume 86, Number 2, 2004): 228–254. Page 228–229.</ref> Six Tang era wooden buildings had been found by the 21st century.<ref name="steinhardt 2004 238">Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman. "The Tang Architectural Icon and the Politics of Chinese Architectural History," ''The Art Bulletin'' (Volume 86, Number 2, 2004): 228–254. Page 238.</ref> The oldest intact fully wooden pagoda is the [[Pagoda of Fogong Temple]] of the [[Liao dynasty]], located in Ying County of [[Shanxi]]. While the East Hall of Foguang Temple features seven types of [[Dougong|bracket arms]] in its construction, the 11th-century Pagoda of Fogong Temple features fifty-four.<ref name="steinhardt 1994 13">Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman. "Liao: An Architectural Tradition in the Making," Artibus Asiae (Volume 54, Number 1/2, 1994): 5–39. Page 13.</ref>
[[File:Great wall of qi 2008 07 14.jpg|right|thumb|Remnants of the [[Great Wall of Qi]] on Dafeng Mountain, Changqing District, [[Jinan]], which was once part of the ancient [[Qi (state)|State of Qi]] during the [[Warring States period]] (475–221 BC).]]
[[File:Peking Great Wall-20071019-RM-113742.jpg|thumb|The [[Great Wall of China]] at Mutianyu, near Beijing, built during the [[Ming dynasty]] (1368–1644)]]
The earliest walls and platforms used [[rammed earth]] construction. Ancient sections of the [[Great Wall of China]] used brick and stone, although the brick and stone Great Wall seen today is a [[Ming dynasty]] renovation.

Buildings for public use and for elites usually consisted of earth mixed with bricks or stones on raised platforms which allowed them to survive. The earliest of this sort of construction was during the [[Shang dynasty]] ({{circa|1600}} – 1046 BCE)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chinese Architecture|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Chinese_Architecture/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513011943/https://www.worldhistory.org/Chinese_Architecture/ |archive-date=13 May 2021 }}</ref>

===Structure===
{{Main|Ancient Chinese wooden architecture}}

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 | image1 = Yingzao Fashi 2 desmear.JPG
 | alt1 = Yingzao Fashi 2 desmear
 | caption1 = [[Mortise and tenon]] work of tie beams and cross beams, from Li Jie's building manual [[Yingzao Fashi]], printed in 1103.

 | image2 = Yingzao Fashi 1 desmear.JPG
 | alt2 = Yingzao Fashi 1 desmear
 | caption2 = Diagram of [[corbel]] wood bracket supports ("[[dougong]]") holding up a multi-inclined roof, from the architectural treatise ''[[Yingzao Fashi]]'' (1103 AD)
}}
* [[File:HanVaultinginearlycenturies.jpg|thumb|Seven forms of Han vaulting<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=A study of Xia Zengyou (1863–1924) and his Zhongguo gudai shi = Xia Zengyou (1863–1924) ji "Zhongguo gu dai shi" yan jiu |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5353/th_b3124624 |publisher=The University of Hong Kong Libraries |first=Kai-bun |last=Yiu|year=2003 |doi=10.5353/th_b3124624 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Redrawn by Sijie Ren after Liu Dunzhen]]''Ceilings:'' The form that served greatest interest was the English vault or dome. The ceiling had the appearance of posed of flat beams, diagonal-support planks (xiecheng banliang), broken-line wedge shaped with a plank inserted, tongue-and-groove joints, barrel vault, or a domical vault. Most of this construction would be done with wood.<ref name=":2" />
* ''Foundation'': Most buildings typically use raised platforms (臺基) as their foundations. Vertical structural beams may rest on stone pedestals (柱础) that occasionally rest on [[Deep foundation|piles]]. In lower class construction, the platforms are constructed of rammed earth, either unpaved or paved with brick or ceramics. In the simplest cases vertical structural beams are driven into the ground. Upper class constructions typically sit on raised stone-paved rammed earth or stone foundations with ornately carved heavy stone pedestals for supporting large vertical structural beams.<ref name="zggjz" /> The beams remain on their pedestals solely by friction and the weight of the building structure.<ref name="yu">{{citation |first1=Maohong |last1=YU |first2=Yoshiya |last2=ODA |first3=Dongping |last3=FANG |first4=Junhai |last4=ZHAO |title=Advances in structural mechanics of Chinese ancient architectures |journal=Front. Archit. Civ. Eng. China |year=2008 |volume=2 |pages=1–25 |doi=10.1007/s11709-008-0002-1 |issue=1|s2cid=108454838 }}</ref>
** ''Framing:'' Dating back to the 5th and 6th centuries, timber framing is evident in cave-temples like Mogao, Yungang, Maijishan and Tianlongshan. Most of these caves use the same method: eight sided columns, two-plate capitals, and alternating bracket arms and V-shaped braces. Whether or not certain structural supports were included was entirely up to what the artisans chose. There were no symbolic meanings behind these designs.<ref name=":2" />
* ''Structural beams'': Large structural timbers support the roof. Timber, usually large trimmed logs, are used as load-bearing columns and lateral beams. These beams are connected to each other directly or, in larger and higher class structures, tied through the use of brackets. These structural timbers are prominently displayed in finished structures. It is not definitively known how ancient builders raised the columns into position.
* ''Structural connections'': Timber frames are typically constructed with joinery and [[dowel]]ling, seldom with glue or nails. These types of semi-rigid structural joints allow the timber structure to resist bending and torsion under high compression.<ref name=zggjz/> Structural stability is enhanced through the use of heavy beams and roofs.<ref name=yu /> The lack of glue or nails in joinery, the use of non-rigid support such as [[dougong]], and the use of wood as structural members allow the buildings to slide, flex, and hinge while absorbing shock, vibration, and ground shifts from [[earthquake]]s without significant damage.<ref name=zggjz/> The rich decorated the Dougong with valuable materials to display their wealth. Common people used artwork to express their appreciation to the house.<ref>Jin, Xia; and Shang-chia Chiou (2015). ''Architectural Features and Preservation of Ancient Residential Complexes of the Changs in Xiangan, Xiamen'', page 458 (https://www.int-arch-photogramm-remote-sens-spatial-inf-sci.net/XL-5-W7/453/2015/isprsarchives-XL-5-W7-453-2015.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171202233831/https://www.int-arch-photogramm-remote-sens-spatial-inf-sci.net/XL-5-W7/453/2015/isprsarchives-XL-5-W7-453-2015.pdf |date=2 December 2017 }}). Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.</ref>
* ''Walls'': Curtain walls or door panels delineated rooms or enclosed a building, with the general de-emphasis of [[load-bearing wall]]s in most higher class construction. However, later dynasties faced a shortage of trees, leading to the use of load-bearing walls in non-governmental or religious construction, made of brick and stone.
* ''Roofs'': Flat roofs are uncommon while [[gable]]d roofs are omnipresent. Roofs are either built on roof cross-beams or rest directly on vertical structural beams. In higher class construction, roof beams are supported through complex dougong bracketing systems that indirectly connect them to the primary structural beams.<ref name=zggjz/> The three main types of roofs are:
** ''Straight inclined'': Roofs with a single incline. These are the most economical and are most prevalent in commoner structures.
** ''Multi-inclined'': Roofs with 2 or more sections of incline. These roofs are used in higher class constructions.
** ''Sweeping'': Roofs with a sweeping curvature that rises at the corners. This type is usually reserved for temples and palaces although it may also be found in the homes of the wealthy. In the former cases, the roof ridges are usually highly decorated with ceramic figurines.
* ''Roof apex'': The roof apex of a large hall is usually topped with a ridge of tiles and statues for decorative purposes as well as to weigh down the tiles for stability. These ridges are often well decorated, especially for religious or palatial structures. In some regions, the ridges are sometimes extended or incorporated into the walls of the building to form ''matouqiang'' (horse-head walls), which served as a fire deterrent from drifting embers.
* ''Roof top decorations'': Symbolism can be found in the colors of the eaves, roofing materials and roof top decorations. Gold/yellow is an auspicious (good) color, imperial roofs are gold or yellow. Green roofs symbolize bamboo shafts, which in turn represent youth and longevity.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www1.chinaculture.org/gb/en_chinaway/2004-03/10/content_46273.htm |title=China's Spectacular Roofs |access-date=2014-09-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140628081026/http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_chinaway/2004-03/10/content_46273.htm |archive-date=28 June 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
** [[File:Northandwestwallsfrontchamberofcave9.jpg|thumb|North and west walls, front chamber of cave 9, showing "Ionic" capitals on north wall, late 5th century<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nai |first=Xia |title=Zhongguo shiku: Yungang shiku |journal= |volume=2 |issue=4}}</ref>]]''Patterns, decoration, elaboration, and ornament:'' all signatures dating back to Chinese architecture from the 5th and 6th century. Many cave temples demonstrate such practice. Studies find that certain patterns were repeated often in different locations across different dynasties. It was also found that designs found in western Asian art travelled to patterns found in Chinese timber.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Loehr |first=Max |date=1967 |title=The Fate of the Ornament in Chinese Art |journal=Archives of Asian Art |volume=21 |pages=8–19}}</ref>