Editing Dacian language (section)

===Chronology===
====1st century BC====
In 53&nbsp;BC, [[Julius Caesar]] stated that the lands of the Dacians started on the eastern edge of the Hercynian Forest.{{sfn|Mountain|1998|p=59}} This corresponds to the period between 82 and 44&nbsp;BC, when the Dacian state reached its widest extent during the reign of King [[Burebista]]: in the west it may have extended as far as the middle Danube River valley in present-day Hungary, in the east and north to the Carpathians in present-day Slovakia and in the south to the lower Dniester valley in present-day south-western Ukraine and the western coast of the Black Sea as far as Appollonia.{{sfn|Magocsi|Pop|2002|p=71}} At that time, some scholars believe, the Dacians built a series of hill-forts at [[Zemplín (region)|Zemplin]] (Slovakia), [[Mala Kopania]] (Ukraine), [[Oncești, Maramureș]] (Romania) and [[Solotvyno]] (Ukraine).{{sfn|Magocsi|Pop|2002|p=71}} The [[Zemplín (region)|Zemplin]] settlement appears to belong to a Celto-Dacian horizon, as well as the river ''Patissus'' (Tisa)'s region, including its upper stretch, according to Shchukin (1989).{{sfn|Shchukin|1989|p=347}} According to Parducz (1956) Foltiny (1966), Dacian archaeological finds extend to the west of Dacia, and occur along both banks of the Tisza.{{sfn|Ehrich|1970|p=228}} Besides the possible incorporation of a part of Slovakia into the Dacian state of Burebista, there was also Geto-Dacian penetration of south-eastern Poland, according to Mielczarek (1989).{{sfn|Mielczarek|1989|p=121}} The Polish linguist [[Milewski|Milewski Tadeusz]] (1966 and 1969) suggests that in the southern regions of Poland appear names that are unusual in northern Poland, possibly related to Dacian or Illyrian names.{{sfn|Milewski|1969|p=304}}{{sfn|Antoniewicz|1966|p=12}} On the grounds of these names, it has been argued that the region of the Carpathian and Tatra Mountains was inhabited by Dacian tribes linguistically related to the ancestors of modern Albanians.{{sfn|Milewski|1969|p=306}}{{sfn|Antoniewicz|1966|p=12}}

Also, a formal statement by Pliny indicated the river [[Vistula river|Vistula]] as the western boundary of Dacia, according to Nicolet (1991).{{sfn|Nicolet|1991|p=109}} Between the Prut and the Dniester, the northern extent of the appearance of Geto-Dacian elements in the 4th century BC coincides roughly with the extent of the present-day Republic of Moldova, according to Mielczarek.{{sfn|Mielczarek|1989|p=13}}

According to [[Karl Müllenhoff|Müllenhoff]] (1856), Schütte (1917), Urbańczyk (2001) and Matei-Popescu (2007), [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Agrippa]]'s commentaries mention the river Vistula as the western boundary of Dacia.{{sfn|Urbańczyk|2001|p=510}}{{sfn|Müllenhoff|1856|p=19}}{{efn|{{harvnb|Schütte|1917|p=87}}: "The Romans knew the dimensions of Dacia, as it is stated by Agrippa (c. 63 BC&nbsp;– 12 BC) in his Commentaries: 'Dacia, Getica finiuntur ab oriente desertis Sarmatiae, ab occidente flumine Vistula, a septentrione Oceano, a meridie flumine Histro. quae patent in longitudine milia passuum CCLXXX, in latitudine qua cognitum est milia passuura CCCLXXXVI'"}} Urbańczyk (1997) speculates that according to Agrippa's commentaries, and the map of Agrippa (before 12&nbsp;BC), the Vistula river separated Germania and Dacia.{{sfn|Urbańczyk|1997|p=13}} This map is lost and its contents are unknown{{efn|See one possible reconstruction: {{harv|livius: Image}}}} However, later Roman geographers, including [[Ptolemy]] (AD 90&nbsp;– c. AD 168) (II.10, III.7) and Tacitus (AD 56&nbsp;– AD 117){{sfn|Tacitus|p=46}} considered the Vistula as the boundary between Germania and Sarmatia Europaea, or Germania and Scythia.{{sfn|Urbańczyk|2001|p=510}}

====1st century AD====
Around 20 [[Anno Domini|AD]], [[Strabo]] wrote the ''Geographica'' that provides information regarding the extent of regions inhabited by the Dacians.{{sfn|Strabo|Jones|Sterrett|1917–1961|p=28}} On its basis, Lengyel and Radan (1980), Hoddinott (1981) and Mountain (1998) consider that the Geto-Dacians inhabited both sides of the [[Tisza]] river before the rise of the Celtic Boii and again after the latter were defeated by the Dacians.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=215}}{{efn|{{harvnb|Strabo|loc=VII.3.1}}: "As for the southern part of Germany beyond the Albis, the portion which is just contiguous to that river is occupied by the Suevi; then immediately adjoining this is the land of the Getae, which, though narrow at first, stretching as it does along the Ister on its southern side and on the opposite side along the mountain-side of the Hercynian Forest (for the land of the Getae also embraces a part of the mountains), afterwards broadens out towards the north as far as the Tyregetae; but I cannot tell the precise boundaries."}}{{sfn|Strabo|loc=V.1.6; VII.1.3; VII.5.2}}{{efn|{{harvnb|Lengyel|Radan|Barkóczi|Bónis|1980|p=87}} "No matter where the Boii first settled after they left Italia, however, when they arrived at the Danube they had to fight the Dacians who held the entire territory&nbsp;— or at least part of it. Strabo tells us that later animosity between the Dacians and the Boii stemmed from the fact that the Dacians demanded the land from the latter which the Dacians pretended to have possessed earlier."}} The hold of the Dacians between the Danube and the Tisza appears to have been tenuous.{{sfn|Lengyel|Radan|Barkóczi|Bónis|1980|p=87}} However, the Hungarian archaeologist Parducz (1856) argued for a Dacian presence west of the Tisza dating from the time of Burebista.{{sfn|Ehrich|1970|p=228}} According to [[Tacitus]] (AD 56&nbsp;– AD 117) Dacians were bordering Germany in the south-east while Sarmatians bordered it in the east.{{efn|{{harvnb|Gruen|2011|p=204}} Germany as a whole is separated from the Gauls and from the Raetians and Pannonians by the rivers Rhine and Danube, from the Sarmatians and Dacians by mutual fear or mountains; the ocean surrounds the rest of it.}}

In the 1st century AD, the [[Iazyges]] settled in the west of Dacia, on the plain between the Danube and the Tisza rivers, according to some scholars' interpretation of [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]]'s text: "The higher parts between the Danube and the Hercynian Forest (Black Forest) as far as the winter quarters of Pannonia at Carnuntum and the plains and level country of the German frontiers there are occupied by the Sarmatian Iazyges, while the Dacians whom they have driven out hold the mountains and forests as far as the river Theiss".{{sfn|Hrushevskyi|1997|p=93}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1980|p=60}}{{sfn|Pliny the Elder|p=179}}{{sfn|Carnap-Bornheim|2003|p=228}}{{sfn|Shelley|1997|p=10}}

Archaeological sources indicate that the local Celto-Dacian population retained its specificity as late as the 3rd century AD.{{sfn|Mielczarek|1989|p=13}} Archaeological finds dated to the 2nd century AD, after the Roman conquest, indicate that during that period, vessels found in some of the Iazygian cemeteries reveal fairly strong Dacian influence, according to Mocsy.{{sfn|Mocsy|1974|p=95}} M. Párducz (1956) and Z. Visy (1971) reported a concentration of Dacian-style finds in the Cris-Mures-Tisza region and in the Danube bend area near Budapest. These maps of finds remain valid today, but they have been complemented with additional finds that cover a wider area, particularly the interfluvial region between the Danube and Tisza.{{sfn|Toma|2007|p=65}} However, this interpretation has been invalidated by late 20th-century archaeology, which has discovered Sarmatian settlements and burial sites all over the Hungarian Plain on both sides of the Tisza, e.g., Gyoma in south-eastern Hungary and Nyiregyhaza in north-eastern Hungary.{{citation needed|date=June 2011}} The ''Barrington Atlas'' shows the Iazyges occupying both sides of Tisza (map 20).

====2nd century AD====
[[File:Central Europemap Pannonia Dacia and others.jpg|thumb|right|Map of South-Eastern Europe including Dacia]]

Written a few decades after the Roman conquest of Dacia 105–106 AD,{{sfn|Mattern|2002|p=61}} Ptolemy's ''[[Geographia]]'' defined the boundaries of Dacia. There is a consensus among scholars that Ptolemy's Dacia was the region between the rivers [[Tisza]], Danube, upper [[Dniester]], and [[Siret]].{{efn|{{harvnb|Hrushevskyi|1997|p=97}}: Dacia, as described by Ptolemy, occupied the region between the Tisza, Danube, upper Dnister, and Seret, while the Black Sea coast&nbsp;— namely, the Greek colonies of Tyras, Olbia, and others&nbsp;— were included in Lower Moesia.}}{{sfn|Bunbury|1979|p=517}}{{sfn|Mocsy|1974|p=21}}{{sfn|Pop|Nägler|2005|p=71}} The mainstream of historians accepted this interpretation: Avery (1972) [[Jean Bérenger|Berenger]] (1994) Fol (1996) Mountain (1998), Waldman Mason (2006).{{sfn|Berenger|1994|p=25}}{{sfn|Mountain|1998|p=59}}{{sfn|Waldman|Mason|2006|p=205}}{{sfn|Avery|1972|p=113}}{{sfn|Fol|1996|p=223}} Ptolemy also provided Dacian toponyms in the Upper [[Vistula]] (Polish: Wisła) river basin in Poland: Susudava and Setidava (with a manuscript variant Getidava.{{sfn|Dobiáš|1964|p=70}}{{sfn|Berindei|Candea|2001|p=429}}{{sfn|Schütte|1952|p=270}}{{sfn|Giurescu|Giurescu|1974|p=31}} This may be an echo of Burebista's expansion.{{sfn|Berindei|Candea|2001|p=429}} It appears that this northern expansion of the Dacian language as far as the Vistula river lasted until 170–180 AD when the [[Hasdings]], a Germanic tribe, expelled a Dacian group from this region, according to Schütte (1917) and Childe (1930).{{sfn|Childe|1930|p=245}}{{sfn|Schütte|1917|pp=143, 109}} This Dacian group is associated by Schütte (1952) with towns having the specific Dacian language ending 'dava' i.e. Setidava.{{sfn|Schütte|1952|p=270}} A previous Dacian presence that ended with the Hasdings' arrival is considered also by {{harvp|Heather|2010}} who says that the Hasdings Vandals "attempted to take control of lands which had previously belonged to a free Dacian group called the Costoboci"{{sfn|Heather|2010|p=131}} Several tribes on the northern slopes of the Carpathians were mentioned that are generally considered Thraco-Dacian, i.e. Arsietae (Upper Vistula),{{sfn|Schütte|1952|p=270}}{{sfn|Popescu-Spineni|1987|p=53}}{{sfn|Rădulescu|1987|p=249}}{{sfn|Russu|1969|p=27}}{{sfn|Wald|Sluşanschi|Băltăceanu|1987|p=117}} Biessi / Biessoi{{sfn|Russu|1969|p=27}}{{sfn|Popescu-Spineni|1987|p=53}}{{sfn|Schütte|1917|p=99}}{{sfn|Georgiev|1972|p=63}} and Piengitai.{{sfn|Popescu-Spineni|1987|p=53}}{{sfn|Wald|Sluşanschi|Băltăceanu|1987|p=117}} Schütte (1952) associated the Dacian tribe of Arsietae with the Arsonion town.{{sfn|Schütte|1952|p=270}} The ancient documents attest names with the Dacian name ending ''-dava'' 'town' in the Balto-Slavic territory, in the country of Arsietae tribe, at the sources of the Vistula river.{{sfn|Poghirc|1983|p=92}} The Biessi inhabited the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains, which on Ptolemy's map are located on the headwaters of the Dnister and Sian Rivers, the right-bank Carpathian tributary of the Vistula river.{{sfn|Hrushevskyi|1997|p=98}} The Biessi (Biessoi) probably left their name to the mountain chain of Bieskides that continues the Carpathian Mountains towards the north (Schütte 1952).{{sfn|Schütte|1952|p=270}} Ptolemy (140&nbsp;AD) lists only Germanic or Balto-Slavic tribes, and no Dacians,{{full citation needed|date=June 2011}}on both sides of the Vistula (ref: II.10; III.7), as does the ''[[Barrington Atlas]]'' (map 19).{{sfn|Barrington Atlas|2000|loc=Map 19}}

After the [[Marcomannic Wars]] (166–180 AD), Dacian groups from outside Roman Dacia had been set in motion, and thus were the 12,000 Dacians "from the neighbourhood of Roman Dacia sent away from their own country". Their native country could have been the Upper Tisza region but other places cannot be excluded.{{sfn|Opreanu|1997|p=249}}