Editing Decentralization (section)

== In technology and the Internet ==
[[File:Living Machine at Port of Portland-interior.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Living Machine]] installation in the lobby of the [[Port of Portland (Oregon)|Port of Portland]] headquarters which was completed and ready for occupation May 2010. The decentralized wastewater reuse system contributed to the headquarter's certification as a LEED Platinum building by the [[U.S. Green Building Council]].]]
''Technological decentralization'' can be defined as a shift from concentrated to distributed modes of production and consumption of goods and services.<ref>Eggimann, S. ''[https://www.research-collection.ethz.ch/bitstream/handle/20.500.11850/125311/eth-50304-02.pdf The optimal degree of centralisation for wastewater infrastructures. A model-based geospatial economic analysis] Doctoral Thesis ETH Zurich.'', 30. November 2016.</ref> Generally, such shifts are accompanied by transformations in technology and different technologies are applied for either system. Technology includes tools, materials, skills, techniques and processes by which goals are accomplished in the public and private spheres. Concepts of decentralization of technology are used throughout [[Outline of technology|all types of technology]], including especially [[information technology]] and [[appropriate technology]].

Technologies often mentioned as best implemented in a decentralized manner, include: water purification, delivery and waste water disposal,<ref>Jeremy Magliaro, Amory Lovins, [http://www.rmi.org/Knowledge-Center/Library/W04-21_ValuingDecentralizedWastewater Valuing Decentralized Wastewater Technologies: A Catalog of Benefits, Costs, and Economic Analysis Techniques] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130305071220/http://www.rmi.org/Knowledge-Center/Library/W04-21_ValuingDecentralizedWastewater |date=2013-03-05 }}, [[Rocky Mountain Institute]], 2004.</ref><ref>Lawrence D. Smith, ''Reform and Decentralization of Agricultural Services: A Policy Framework'', United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]], 2001, [https://books.google.com/books?id=PtIqRuW0SVYC&dq=decentralization+of+water+delivery&pg=PA211 p. 2010–211] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610094503/https://books.google.com/books?id=PtIqRuW0SVYC&pg=PA211 |date=2016-06-10 }}, {{ISBN|978-9251046449}}</ref> agricultural technology<ref>Lawrence D. Smith, ''Reform and Decentralization of Agricultural Services: A Policy Framework'', 2001.</ref> and energy technology.<ref>Maggie Koerth-Baker, [https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/04/what-we-talk-about-when-we-talk-about-the-decentralization-of-energy/255873/ What We Talk About When We Talk About the Decentralization of Energy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231134938/http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/04/what-we-talk-about-when-we-talk-about-the-decentralization-of-energy/255873/ |date=2016-12-31 }}, [[The Atlantic]], April 16, 2012.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theneweconomy.com/energy/how-blockchain-technology-could-potentially-electrify-the-energy-industry|title=How blockchain technology could electrify the energy industry|website=www.theneweconomy.com|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-07}}</ref> Advances in technology may create opportunities for decentralized and privatized replacements for what had traditionally been public services or utilities, such as power, water, mail, telecommunications, consumer product safety, banking, medical licensure, parking meters, and auto emissions.<ref>Fred E. Foldvary, Daniel Bruce Klein, Editors, ''The Half-Life of Policy Rationales: How New Technology Affects Old Policy Issues'' [[NYU Press]], 2003, [https://books.google.com/books?id=pEg2pC6entUC&dq=Half-Life+Policy+Rationales+Decentralization&pg=PA184 pp. 1, 184] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501074650/https://books.google.com/books?id=pEg2pC6entUC&pg=PA184 |date=2016-05-01 }}, {{ISBN|978-0814747773}}</ref> However, in terms of technology, a clear distinction between fully centralized or decentralized technical solutions is often not possible and therefore finding an optimal degree of centralization difficult from an [[Planning|infrastructure planning]] perspective.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eggimann |first1=Sven |last2=Truffer |first2=Bernhard |last3=Maurer |first3=Max |title=To connect or not to connect? Modelling the optimal degree of centralisation for wastewater infrastructures |journal=Water Research |date=November 2015 |volume=84 |pages=218–231 |doi=10.1016/j.watres.2015.07.004 |pmid=26247101 |bibcode=2015WatRe..84..218E |hdl=1874/322959 |url=https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/eawag/islandora/object/eawag%3A8241 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

=== Information technology ===
Information technology encompasses computers and computer networks, as well as information distribution technologies such as television and telephones. The whole [[computer industry]] of [[computer hardware]], [[software]], [[electronics]], [[Internet]], [[telecommunications equipment]], [[e-commerce]] and [[computer services]] are included.<ref>{{citation |last1=Chandler |first1=Daniel |last2=Munday |first2=Rod |contribution=Information technology |title=A Dictionary of Media and Communication |date=January 2011 |edition=first |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-956875-8 |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t326.e1343 |access-date=1 August 2012}} {{subscription required}}</ref>

Executives and managers face a constant tension between centralizing and decentralizing information technology for their organizations. They must find the right balance of centralizing which lowers costs and allows more control by upper management, and decentralizing which allows sub-units and users more control. This will depend on analysis of the specific situation. Decentralization is particularly applicable to business or management units which have a high level of independence, complicated products and customers, and technology less relevant to other units.<ref>John Baschab, Jon Piot, ''The Executive's Guide to Information Technology'', John Wiley & Sons, 2007, [https://books.google.com/books?id=YokHUkRBZoAC&dq=decentralization+information+technology&pg=PA119 p. 119] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501182210/https://books.google.com/books?id=YokHUkRBZoAC&pg=PA119 |date=2016-05-01 }}, {{ISBN|978-0470135914}}</ref>

Information technology applied to government communications with citizens, often called [[e-Government]], is supposed to support decentralization and democratization. Various forms have been instituted in most nations worldwide.<ref>G. David Garson, ''Modern Public Information Technology Systems: Issues and Challenges'', IGI Global, 2007, [https://books.google.com/books?id=mf_kb6MKrOYC&dq=information+technology+decentralization&pg=PT128 p. 115–20] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160519041443/https://books.google.com/books?id=mf_kb6MKrOYC&pg=PT128 |date=2016-05-19 }}, {{ISBN|978-1599040530}}</ref>

The [[Internet]] is an example of an extremely decentralized network, having no owners at all (although some have argued that this is less the case in recent years<ref name=newyorkerdecentralize>{{cite magazine|last=Kopfstein|first=Janus|title=The Mission To Decentralize The Internet|url=http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/elements/2013/12/the-mission-to-decentralize-the-internet.html|magazine=The New Yorker| date=12 December 2013 |publisher=Condé Nast|access-date=13 December 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213190350/http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/elements/2013/12/the-mission-to-decentralize-the-internet.html|archive-date=13 December 2013}}</ref>). "No one is in charge of internet, and everyone is." As long as they follow a certain minimal number of rules, anyone can be a service provider or a user. Voluntary boards establish protocols, but cannot stop anyone from developing new ones.<ref>[[Thomas W. Malone]], Robert Laubacher, [[Michael S. Scott Morton]], ''Inventing Organizations 21st Century'', [[MIT Press]], 2003, [https://books.google.com/books?id=az_UcjtGrSgC&q=internet+is+decentralized++structure 65–66] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428093601/https://books.google.com/books?id=az_UcjtGrSgC |date=2016-04-28 }}, {{ISBN|978-0262632737}}</ref> Other examples of open source or decentralized movements are [[Wiki]]s which allow users to add, modify, or delete content via the internet.<ref>Chris DiBona, Mark Stone, Danese Cooper, ''Open Sources 2.0: The Continuing Evolution'', O'Reilly Media, Inc., 2008, [https://books.google.com/books?id=q9GnNrq3e5EC&dq=wikipedia+decentralization&pg=PA316 p. 316] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610134249/https://books.google.com/books?id=q9GnNrq3e5EC&pg=PA316 |date=2016-06-10 }}, {{ISBN|978-0596553890}}</ref> [[Wikipedia]] has been described as decentralized (although it is a centralized web site, with a single entity operating the servers).<ref>Axel Bruns, ''Blogs, Wikipedia, Second Life, and Beyond: From Production to Produsage'', [[Peter Lang (publishing company)|Peter Lang]], 2008, [https://books.google.com/books?id=xWxmFNMKXhEC&dq=wikipedia+decentralization&pg=PA231 p. 80] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528215002/https://books.google.com/books?id=xWxmFNMKXhEC&pg=PA231 |date=2016-05-28 }}, {{ISBN|978-0820488660}}</ref> [[Smartphones]] have been described as being an important part of the decentralizing effects of smaller and cheaper computers worldwide.<ref>[[Joseph Nye]], [http://www.praguepost.com/opinion/15511-the-politics-of-the-information-age.html The politics of the information age] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130221094236/http://www.praguepost.com/opinion/15511-the-politics-of-the-information-age.html |date=2013-02-21 }}, [[Prague Post]], February 13, 2010.</ref>

Decentralization continues throughout the industry, for example as the decentralized architecture of wireless routers installed in homes and offices supplement and even replace phone companies' relatively centralized long-range cell towers.<ref>Adi Kamdar and Peter Eckersley, [https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2013/02/fcc-public-super-wifi-networks Can the FCC Create Public "Super WiFi Networks"?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130212163129/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2013/02/fcc-public-super-wifi-networks |date=2013-02-12 }}, [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]], February 5, 2013.</ref>

Inspired by system and [[cybernetics]] theorists like [[Norbert Wiener]], [[Marshall McLuhan]] and [[Buckminster Fuller]], in the 1960s [[Stewart Brand]] started the [[Whole Earth Catalog]] and later computer networking efforts to bring [[Silicon Valley]] computer technologists and entrepreneurs together with countercultural ideas. This resulted in ideas like [[Personal computer|personal computing]], [[Virtual community|virtual communities]] and the vision of an "electronic frontier" which would be a more decentralized, egalitarian and free-market libertarian society. Related ideas coming out of Silicon Valley included the free software and creative commons movements which produced visions of a "networked [[information economy]]".<ref>Jennifer Holt, Alisa Perren, ''Media Industries: History, Theory, and Method'', John Wiley & Sons, 2011, [https://books.google.com/books?id=SJ1ZYY-8kj4C&dq=%22free+market%22+decentralization+of+corporations+libertarian&pg=RA4-PA1996 pp. 1995–97] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504060020/https://books.google.com/books?id=SJ1ZYY-8kj4C&pg=RA4-PA1996 |date=2016-05-04 }}, {{ISBN|978-1444360233}}</ref>

Because human interactions in [[cyberspace]] transcend physical geography, there is a necessity for new theories in legal and other rule-making systems to deal with decentralized decision-making processes in such systems. For example, what rules should apply to conduct on the global digital network and who should set them? The laws of which nations govern issues of Internet transactions (like seller disclosure requirements or definitions of "fraud"), copyright and trademark?<ref>David G. Post and David R. Johnson, [https://ssrn.com/abstract=157692 'Chaos Prevailing on Every Continent': Towards a New Theory of Decentralized Decision-Making in Complex Systems] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826085509/https://ssrn.com/abstract=157692 |date=2011-08-26 }}, Chicago-Kent Law Review, Vol. 73, No. 4, p. 1055, 1998, full version at [http://www.temple.edu/lawschool/dpost/chaos/chaos.htm David G. Post's Temple University website] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121003152845/http://www.temple.edu/lawschool/dpost/chaos/chaos.htm |date=2012-10-03 }}.</ref>
==== Decentralized computing ====
{{excerpt|Decentralized computing}}
==== Centralization and re-decentralization of the Internet ====
{{See also|Decentralized web}}
[[The New Yorker]] reports that although the Internet was originally decentralized, by 2013 it had become less so: "a staggering percentage of communications flow through a small set of corporations – and thus, under the profound influence of those companies and other institutions [...] One solution, espoused by some programmers, is to make the Internet more like it used to be – less centralized and more distributed."<ref name=newyorkerdecentralize/>

Examples of projects that attempt to contribute to the re-decentralization of the Internet include [[ArkOS]], [[Diaspora (social network)|Diaspora]], [[FreedomBox]], [[IndieWeb]], [[Namecoin]], SAFE Network, twtxt and [[ZeroNet]] as well as advocacy group [https://redecentralize.org/ Redecentralize.org], which provides support for projects that aim to make the Web less centralized.<ref name=newyorkerdecentralize />

In an interview with [[BBC Radio 5 Live]] one of the co-founders of Redecentralize.org explained that:
{{blockquote|"As we've gone on there's been more and more internet traffic focused through particular nodes such as Google or Facebook. [...] Centralised services that hold all the user data and host it themselves have become increasingly popular because that business model has worked. As the Internet has become more mass market, people are not necessarily willing or knowledgable to host it themselves, so where that hosting is outsourced it's become the default, which allows a centralization of power and a centralization of data that I think is worrying."<ref>{{cite interview|last= [[Irina Bolychevsky|Bolychevsky]]|first= Irina|url= http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/podcasts/fivelive/pods/pods_20131112-0401a.mp3|interviewer= [[Jamillah Knowles]]|title= BBC Radio Five Live|date= 12 November 2013|work= Outriders|access-date= 12 December 2013|url-status= live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131215060028/http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/podcasts/fivelive/pods/pods_20131112-0401a.mp3|archive-date= 15 December 2013}}</ref>}}

===== Blockchain technology =====
{{See also|Peer-to-peer|Web3|Decentralized finance}}

In [[blockchain]], decentralization refers to the transfer of control and decision-making from a centralized entity (individual, organization, or group thereof) to a distributed network. Decentralized networks strive to reduce the level of trust that participants must place in one another, and deter their ability to exert authority or control over one another in ways that degrade the functionality of the network.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Anderson|first=Mally|date=2019-02-07|title=Exploring Decentralization: Blockchain Technology and Complex Coordination|url=https://jods.mitpress.mit.edu/pub/7vxemtm3/release/2|journal=Journal of Design and Science|language=en}}</ref>

Decentralized protocols, applications, and ledgers (used in [[Web3]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zarrin |first1=Javad |last2=Wen Phang |first2=Hao |last3=Babu Saheer |first3=Lakshmi |last4=Zarrin |first4=Bahram |title=Blockchain for decentralization of internet: prospects, trends, and challenges |journal=Cluster Computing |date=December 2021 |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=2841–2866 |doi=10.1007/s10586-021-03301-8 |pmid=34025209 |pmc=8122205 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1002/9781119621201.ch1 |chapter=Blockchain |title=Cryptocurrencies and Blockchain Technology Applications |year=2020 |last1=Gururaj |first1=H. L. |last2=Manoj Athreya |first2=A. |last3=Kumar |first3=Ashwin A. |last4=Holla |first4=Abhishek M. |last5=Nagarajath |first5=S. M. |last6=Ravi Kumar |first6=V. |pages=1–24 |isbn=9781119621164 |s2cid=242394449 }}</ref>) could be more difficult for governments to regulate, similar to difficulties regulating [[BitTorrent]] (which is not a blockchain technology).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McGinnis |first1=John |last2=Roche |first2=Kyle |title=Bitcoin: Order Without Law in the Digital Age |journal=Indiana Law Journal |date=October 2019 |volume=94 |issue=4 |pages=6 |url=https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/ilj/vol94/iss4/6/ }}</ref>