Editing Flashbulb memory (section)

== Controversy: special mechanism hypothesis ==

The special-mechanism hypothesis has been the subject of considerable discussion in recent years, with some authors endorsing the hypothesis and others noting potential problems.This hypothesis divides memory processes into different categories, positing that different mechanisms underlie flashbulb memories. Yet many argue that flashbulb memories are simply the product of multiple, unique factors coalescing.<ref name="PillemerComment1990">{{cite journal|last=Pillemer|first=D. B.|title=Clarifying flashbulb memory concept: Comment on McCloskey, Wible, and Cohen (1988)|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |year=1990 |volume=119|issue=1 |pages=92–96 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.119.1.92}}</ref>

===Supporting evidence===

Data concerning people's recollections of the [[Reagan assassination attempt]] provide support for the special-mechanism hypothesis.<ref name = "Pillemer"/> People had highly accurate accounts of the event and had lost very few details regarding the event several months after it occurred. Additionally, an experiment examining emotional state and word valence found that people are better able to remember irrelevant information when they are in a negative, shocked state.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lanciano|first=T.|author2=Curci, A. |author3=Semin, G. R. |title=The emotional and reconstructive determinants of emotional memories: An experimental approach to flashbulb memory investigation|journal=Memory|year=2010|volume=18|issue=5|pages=473–485 |doi=10.1080/09658211003762076|pmid=20419556|s2cid=22516784}}</ref> There is also neurological evidence in support of a special mechanism view.  Emotionally neutral autobiographical events, such as a party, were compared with two emotionally arousing events: [[Princess Diana]]'s death, and [[Mother Teresa]]'s death.  Long-term memory for the contextual details of an emotionally neutral autobiographical event was related to [[medial temporal lobe]] function and correlated with [[frontal lobe]] function, whereas there was no hint of an effect of either medial temporal lobe or frontal lobe function on memory for the two flashbulb events. These results indicate that there might be a special neurobiological mechanism associated with emotionally arousing flashbulb memories.<ref name = "Davidson P">{{Cite journal 
| last1 = Davidson 
| first1 = Patrick S. R. 
| last2 = Glisky 
| first2 = Elizabeth L. 
| doi = 10.1080/09658210143000227 
| title = Is flashbulb memory a special instance of source memory? Evidence from older adults 
| journal = Memory 
| volume = 10 
| issue = 2 
| pages = 99–111 
| year = 2002 
| pmid = 11798440 
| s2cid = 10400226 
| url = http://www.socialsciences.uottawa.ca/neuro/eng/documents/davidson_memory_02.pdf 
| access-date = 2013-02-11 
| archive-date = 2012-03-02 
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120302002429/http://www.socialsciences.uottawa.ca/neuro/eng/documents/davidson_memory_02.pdf 
| url-status = dead 
}}</ref>

===Opposing evidence===

Studies have shown that flashbulb memories can result from non-surprising events,<ref name="Neisser"/> such as the [[Apollo 11|first Moon landing]],<ref>{{Cite journal 
| last1 = Winograd | first1 = Eugene 
| last2 = Killinger | first2 = William A. 
| doi = 10.1037/0096-3445.112.3.413 
| title = Relating age at encoding in early childhood to adult recall: Development of flashbulb memories 
| journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 
| volume = 112 
| issue = 3 
| pages = 413–432
|date=September 1983 
}}</ref> and also from non-consequential events.  While Brown and Kulik defined flashbulb memories as memories of first learning about a shocking event, they expand their discussion to include personal events in which the memory is of the event itself.  Simply asking participants to retrieve vivid, autobiographical memories has been shown to produce memories that contain the six features of flashbulb memories.<ref name="Rubin"/> Therefore, it has been proposed that such memories be viewed as products of ordinary memory mechanisms.<ref name = "McCloskey"/>  Moreover, flashbulb memories have been shown to be susceptible to errors in reconstructive processes, specifically systematic bias.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wright|first=D. B.|title=Recall of the Hillsborough disaster over time: Systematic biases of 'flashbulb' memories|journal=Applied Cognitive Psychology|year=1993|volume=7|issue=2|pages=129–138 |doi=10.1002/acp.2350070205}}</ref> It has been suggested that flashbulb memories are not especially resistant to forgetting.<ref name="Neisser3">Neisser, U. & Harsch, N. (1992) in Affect and Accuracy in Recall: Studies of "Flashbulb" Memories, eds Winograd, E., Neisser, U (Cambridge University Press, New York), pp 9–32.</ref><ref name="Neisser U">{{Cite journal 
| last1 = Neisser | first1 = U. 
| last2 = Winograd | first2 = E. 
| last3 = Bergman | first3 = E. T. 
| last4 = Schreiber | first4 = C. A. 
| last5 = Palmer | first5 = S. E. 
| last6 = Weldon | first6 = M. S. 
| title = Remembering the earthquake: direct experience vs. hearing the news 
| doi = 10.1080/096582196388898 
| journal = Memory 
| volume = 4 
| issue = 4 
| pages = 337–357 
|date=July 1996
| pmid = 8817459 
}}</ref><ref name= "Talarico"/> A number of studies suggest that flashbulb memories are not especially accurate, but that they are experienced with great vividness and confidence.<ref name="Neisser U"/><ref name="Talarico"/>  Therefore, it is argued that it  may be more precise to define flashbulb memories as extremely vivid autobiographical memories.  Although they are often memories of learning about a shocking public event, they are not limited to such events, and not all memories of learning about shocking public events produce flashbulb memories.<ref>Larsen, S. F. (1992). "Affect and Accuracy in Recall: Studies of ''Flashbulb'' Memories", eds Winograd, E., Neisser, U. 43–48, Cambridge University Press, New York</ref>