Editing Group 7 element (section)

== History ==

=== Manganese ===
Manganese dioxide, which is abundant in nature, has long been used as a pigment. The cave paintings in [[Gargas, Haute-Garonne|Gargas]] that are 30,000 to 24,000 years old are made from the mineral form of MnO<sub>2</sub> pigments.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/s00339-006-3510-7|title=Minerals discovered in paleolithic black pigments by transmission electron microscopy and micro-X-ray absorption near-edge structure|date=2006|last1=Chalmin|first1=E.|last2=Vignaud|first2=C. |last3=Salomon|first3=H.|last4=Farges|first4=F.|last5=Susini|first5=J. |last6= Menu|first6=M.|journal=Applied Physics A|volume=83 |pages=213–218|issue=12|bibcode=2006ApPhA..83..213C|hdl=2268/67458|s2cid=9221234|url=http://orbi.ulg.ac.be/bitstream/2268/67458/1/fulltext.pdf}}</ref> Manganese compounds were used by Egyptian and Roman glassmakers, either to add to, or remove, color from glass.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.133.3467.1824|date=1961|last=Sayre|first=E. V.|author2=Smith, R. W.|title=Compositional Categories of Ancient Glass |volume=133|issue=3467|pages=1824–1826|journal=Science|pmid=17818999|bibcode=1961Sci...133.1824S|s2cid=25198686}}</ref> Use as "glassmakers soap" continued through the [[Middle Ages]] until modern times and is evident in 14th-century glass from [[Venice]].<ref name="ItGlass">{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s11837-998-0024-0|title=Glassmaking in renaissance Italy: The innovation of venetian cristallo|date=1998|last=Mccray |first=W. Patrick|journal=JOM|volume=50|pages=14–19|issue=5|bibcode=1998JOM....50e..14M|s2cid=111314824}}</ref>

=== Technetium and rhenium ===

Rhenium ({{langx|la|Rhenus}} meaning: "[[Rhine]]")<ref>{{cite book|language=de|title=Forschen Suche und Sucht|first=Hans Georg|last=Tilgner|publisher=Books on Demand| date=2000|isbn=978-3-89811-272-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UWBWnMOGtMQC}}</ref> was the last-discovered of the elements that have a stable isotope (other new elements discovered in nature since then, such as [[francium]], are radioactive).<ref name="usgs">{{cite web|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/rhenium/|work=Minerals Information|title=Rhenium: Statistics and Information|date=2011|access-date=2011-05-25}}</ref> The existence of a yet-undiscovered element at this position in the [[periodic table]] had been first predicted by [[Dmitri Mendeleev]]. Other calculated information was obtained by [[Henry Moseley]] in 1914.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Henry|last=Moseley|title=The High-Frequency Spectra of the Elements, Part II|doi=10.1080/14786440408635141|journal=Philosophical Magazine|date=1914|pages=703–713|volume=27|issue=160|url=http://www.chemistry.co.nz/henry_moseley_article.htm|access-date=2009-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100122022821/http://www.materials.manchester.ac.uk/research/facilities/moseley/biography/|archive-date=2010-01-22|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1908, [[Japan]]ese chemist [[Masataka Ogawa]] announced that he had discovered the 43rd element and named it ''nipponium'' (Np) after [[Japan]] (''Nippon'' in Japanese). In fact, what he had was rhenium (element 75), not [[technetium]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.sab.2003.12.027|title=Discovery of a new element 'nipponiumʼ: re-evaluation of pioneering works of Masataka Ogawa and his son Eijiro Ogawa|date=2004|last=Yoshihara|first=H. K.|journal=Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy|volume=59|pages=1305–1310|bibcode=2004AcSpB..59.1305Y|issue=8}}</ref><ref name=nipponium2022>{{cite journal |last1=Hisamatsu |first1=Yoji |last2=Egashira |first2=Kazuhiro |first3=Yoshiteru |last3=Maeno |date=2022 |title=Ogawa's nipponium and its re-assignment to rhenium |journal=Foundations of Chemistry |volume=24 |issue= |pages=15–57 |doi=10.1007/s10698-021-09410-x |doi-access=free }}</ref> The symbol Np was later used for the element [[neptunium]], and the name "nihonium", also [[Names of Japan#Nihon and Nippon|named after Japan]], along with symbol Nh, was later used for [[nihonium|element 113]]. Element 113 was also discovered by a team of Japanese scientists and was named in respectful homage to Ogawa's work.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Öhrström |first1=Lars |last2=Reedijk |first2=Jan |date=28 November 2016 |title=Names and symbols of the elements with atomic numbers 113, 115, 117 and 118 (IUPAC Recommendations 2016) |url=https://www.degruyter.com/downloadpdf/j/pac.2016.88.issue-12/pac-2016-0501/pac-2016-0501.pdf |journal=Pure Appl. Chem. |volume=88 |issue=12 |pages=1225–1229 |doi=10.1515/pac-2016-0501 |access-date=22 April 2017|hdl=1887/47427 |s2cid=99429711 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Rhenium was rediscovered by [[Walter Noddack]], [[Ida Tacke|Ida Noddack]], and [[Otto Berg (scientist)|Otto Berg]] in [[Germany]]. In 1925 they reported that they had detected the element in platinum ore and in the mineral [[columbite]]. They also found rhenium in [[gadolinite]] and [[molybdenite]].<ref name="'Ekamangane'">{{cite journal|last=Noddack|first=W.|author2=Tacke, I. |author3=Berg, O. |title=Die Ekamangane| journal=Naturwissenschaften| date=1925|volume=13|issue=26 |pages=567–574|doi=10.1007/BF01558746 |bibcode=1925NW.....13..567.|s2cid=32974087}}</ref> In 1928 they were able to extract 1 g of the element by processing 660&nbsp;kg of molybdenite.<ref name="1g">{{cite journal|last=Noddack| first=W.|author2=Noddack, I. |title=Die Herstellung von einem Gram Rhenium |journal=Zeitschrift für Anorganische und Allgemeine Chemie|date=1929|volume=183|issue=1|pages =353–375|doi=10.1002/zaac.19291830126|language=de}}</ref><!--The following text is a 1 to one copy from the USGS site: The process was so complicated and expensive that production was discontinued until early 1950 when tungsten-rhenium and molybdenum-rhenium alloys were prepared. These alloys found important applications in industry that resulted in a great demand for the rhenium produced from the molybdenite fraction of porphyry [[copper]] ores.{{citation needed|date = May 2012}}--> It was estimated in 1968 that 75% of the rhenium metal in the [[United States]] was used for research and the development of [[refractory metal]] alloys. It took several years from that point before the superalloys became widely used.<ref>{{cite book| pages =4–5| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=oD8rAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA4| title =Trends in usage of rhenium: Report| last1 =Committee On Technical Aspects Of Critical And Strategic Material| first1 =National Research Council (U.S.)| date =1968}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Wd9GAAAAYAAJ | title = Rhenium alloys | last1 = Savitskiĭ | first1 = Evgeniĭ Mikhaĭlovich | last2 = Tulkina | first2 = Mariia Aronovna | last3 = Povarova | first3 = Kira Borisovna |author-link3=Kira Povarova | date = 1970}}</ref>

The [[Discovery of the chemical elements|discovery]] of element&nbsp;43 was finally confirmed in a 1937 experiment at the [[University of Palermo]] in Sicily by [[Carlo Perrier]] and [[Emilio Segrè]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Heiserman |first=D. L. |year=1992 |title=Exploring Chemical Elements and their Compounds |location=New York |publisher=TAB Books |isbn=978-0-8306-3018-9 |chapter=Element 43: Technetium |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/exploringchemica01heis |page=164}}</ref> In mid-1936, Segrè visited the United States, first [[Columbia University]] in New York and then the [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]] in California. He persuaded [[cyclotron]] inventor [[Ernest Lawrence]] to let him take back some discarded cyclotron parts that had become [[radioactive]]. Lawrence mailed him a [[molybdenum]] foil that had been part of the deflector in the cyclotron.<ref>{{cite book |first=Emilio |last=Segrè |date=1993 |title=A Mind Always in Motion: The Autobiography of Emilio Segrè |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, California |isbn=978-0520076273 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mindalwaysinmoti00segr/page/115 115–118] |url=https://archive.org/details/mindalwaysinmoti00segr/page/115 }}</ref>

=== Bohrium ===

Two groups claimed [[Timeline of chemical element discoveries|discovery of the element bohrium]]. Evidence of bohrium was first reported in 1976 by a Soviet research team led by [[Yuri Oganessian]], in which targets of [[bismuth-209]] and [[lead]]-208 were bombarded with accelerated nuclei of [[chromium]]-54 and [[manganese]]-55 respectively.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/0375-9474(76)90607-2|title= On spontaneous fission of neutron-deficient isotopes of elements | volume=273|year=1976|journal=Nuclear Physics A|pages=505–522  | last1 = Yu | last2 = Demin | first2 = A.G. | last3 = Danilov | first3 = N.A. | last4 = Flerov | first4 = G.N. | last5 = Ivanov | first5 = M.P. | last6 = Iljinov | first6 = A.S. | last7 = Kolesnikov | first7 = N.N. | last8 = Markov | first8 = B.N. | last9 = Plotko | first9 = V.M. | last10 = Tretyakova | first10 = S.P.}}</ref> Two activities, one with a half-life of one to two milliseconds, and the other with an approximately five-second half-life, were seen. Since the ratio of the intensities of these two activities was constant throughout the experiment, it was proposed that the first was from the [[isotope]] bohrium-261 and that the second was from its daughter [[dubnium]]-257. Later, the dubnium isotope was corrected to dubnium-258, which indeed has a five-second half-life (dubnium-257 has a one-second half-life); however, the half-life observed for its parent is much shorter than the half-lives later observed in the definitive discovery of bohrium at [[Darmstadt]] in 1981. The [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]]/IUPAP Transfermium Working Group (TWG) concluded that while dubnium-258 was probably seen in this experiment, the evidence for the production of its parent bohrium-262 was not convincing enough.<ref name="93TWG" />

In 1981, a German research team led by [[Peter Armbruster]] and [[Gottfried Münzenberg]] at the [[GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research]] (GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung) in Darmstadt bombarded a target of bismuth-209 with accelerated nuclei of chromium-54 to produce five atoms of the isotope bohrium-262:<ref name="262Bh">{{cite journal |last1=Münzenberg |first1=G. |last2=Hofmann |first2=S. |last3=Heßberger |first3=F. P. |last4=Reisdorf |first4=W. |last5=Schmidt |first5=K. H. |last6=Schneider |first6=J. H. R. |last7=Armbruster |first7=P. |last8=Sahm |first8=C. C. |last9=Thuma |first9=B. |year=1981 |title=Identification of element 107 by α correlation chains |journal=Zeitschrift für Physik A |volume=300 |issue=1 |pages=107–8 |doi=10.1007/BF01412623 |bibcode = 1981ZPhyA.300..107M |s2cid=118312056 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/238901044 |access-date=24 December 2016 }}</ref>

:{{nuclide|link=yes|bismuth|209}} + {{nuclide|link=yes|chromium|54}} → {{nuclide|link=yes|bohrium|262}} + {{SubatomicParticle|link=yes|neutron}}

This discovery was further substantiated by their detailed measurements of the alpha decay chain of the produced bohrium atoms to previously known isotopes of [[fermium]] and [[californium]]. The [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]]/IUPAP Transfermium Working Group (TWG) recognised the GSI collaboration as official discoverers in their 1992 report.<ref name="93TWG">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1351/pac199365081757 |title=Discovery of the transfermium elements. Part II: Introduction to discovery profiles. Part III: Discovery profiles of the transfermium elements |year=1993 |author=Barber, R. C. |journal=Pure and Applied Chemistry |volume=65 |pages=1757 |last2=Greenwood |first2=N. N. |last3=Hrynkiewicz |first3=A. Z. |last4=Jeannin |first4=Y. P. |last5=Lefort |first5=M. |last6=Sakai |first6=M. |last7=Ulehla |first7=I. |last8=Wapstra |first8=A. P. |last9=Wilkinson |first9=D. H. |issue=8|s2cid=195819585 |doi-access=free
}}</ref>