Editing Management (section)

===20th century===
At the turn of the twentieth century, the need for skilled and trained managers had become increasingly apparent.{{cn|date=April 2025}} The demand occurred as personnel departments began to expand rapidly. In 1915, less than one in twenty manufacturing firms had a dedicated personnel department. By 1929 that number had grown to over one-third.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jacoby |first=S.M. |date=1985 |title=Employing Bureaucracy: Managers, Unions, and the Transformation of Work in American Industry, 1900-1945 |journal=Columbia University Press}}</ref> Formal management education became standardized at colleges and universities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cruikshank |first=L|date=1987 |title= A Delicate Experiment: The Harvard Business School, 1908-1945 |journal=Harvard Business School Press}}</ref> Colleges and universities capitalized on the needs of corporations by forming business schools and corporate-placement departments.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Groeger |first=Cristina V. |date=February 2018 |title=A "Good Mixer": University Placement in Corporate America, 1890–1940 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0018268017000486/type/journal_article |journal=History of Education Quarterly |language=en |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=33–64 |doi=10.1017/heq.2017.48 |s2cid=149037078 |issn=0018-2680|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This shift toward formal business education marked the creation of a corporate élite in the US.

By about 1900 one finds managers trying to place their theories on what they regarded as a thoroughly scientific basis (see [[scientism]] for perceived limitations of this belief). Examples include [[Henry R. Towne]]'s ''Science of management'' in the 1890s, [[Frederick Winslow Taylor]]'s ''[[The Principles of Scientific Management]]'' (1911), [[Lillian Moller Gilbreth|Lillian Gilbreth]]'s ''Psychology of Management'' (1914),<ref>{{cite book|url= https://archive.org/details/thepsychologyofm16256gut |title= The Psychology of Management: The Function of the Mind in Determining, Teaching and Installing Methods of Least Waste |first= Lillian Moller |last= Gilbreth |via= Internet Archive}}</ref> [[Frank Bunker Gilbreth|Frank]] and [[Lillian Moller Gilbreth|Lillian Gilbreth]]'s ''Applied motion study'' (1917), and [[Henry L. Gantt]]'s charts (1910s). J. Duncan wrote the first [[college]] management [[textbook]] in 1911. In 1912 [[Yoichi Ueno]] introduced [[Taylorism]] to [[Japan]] and became the first [[management consultant]] of the [[Japanese management culture| "Japanese management style"]]. His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered Japanese [[quality assurance]].

The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920.{{citation needed|date= July 2018}} The [[Harvard Business School]] offered the first [[Master of Business Administration]] degree (MBA) in 1921. People like [[Henri Fayol]] (1841–1925) and [[Alexander Hamilton Church|Alexander Church]] (1866–1936) described the various branches of management and their inter-relationships. In the early 20th century, people like Ordway Tead (1891–1973), [[Walter Dill Scott|Walter Scott]] (1869–1955) and J. Mooney applied the principles of [[psychology]] to management. Other writers, such as [[Elton Mayo]] (1880–1949), [[Mary Follett|Mary Parker Follett]] (1868–1933), [[Chester Barnard]] (1886–1961), [[Max Weber]] (1864–1920, who saw what he called the "administrator" as [[bureaucrat]],<ref>
{{cite book
| last1                 = Legge
| first1                = David
| last2                 = Stanton
| first2                = Pauline
| last3                 = Smyth
| first3                = Anne
| chapter               = Learning management (and managing your own learning)
| editor1-last          = Harris
| editor1-first         = Mary G.
| title                 = Managing Health Services: Concepts and Practice
| chapter-url                   = https://books.google.com/books?id=yA2SR4DgU5wC
| location              = Marrickville, NSW
| publisher             = Elsevier Australia
| publication-date      = 2006
| page                  = 13
| isbn                  = 978-0-7295-3759-9
| access-date            = 2014-07-11
| quote                 = The ''manager as bureaucrat'' is the guardian of roles, rules, and relationships; his or her style of management relies heavily on working according to the book. In the Weberian tradition, managers are necessary to coordinate the different roles that contribute to the production process and to mediate communication from the head office to the shop floor and back. This style of management assumes a world view in which the bureaucratic role is seen as separate from, and taking precedence over, other constructions of self (including the obligations of citizenship), at least for the working day.
| date                = October 2005
}}
</ref>), [[Rensis Likert]] (1903–1981), and [[Chris Argyris]] (born 1923) approached the phenomenon of management from a [[sociology|sociological]] perspective.

[[Peter Drucker]] (1909–2005) wrote one of the earliest books on applied management: ''[[Concept of the Corporation]]'' (published in 1946). It resulted from [[Alfred Sloan]] (chairman of [[General Motors Corporation|General Motors]] until 1956) commissioning a study of the [[organization]]. Drucker went on to write 39 books, many in the same vein.

H. Dodge, [[Ronald Fisher]] (1890–1962), and Thornton C. Fry introduced statistical techniques into management studies. In the 1940s, [[Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett|Patrick Blackett]] worked in the development of the [[applied mathematics|applied-mathematics]] [[science]] of [[operations research]], initially for military operations. Operations research, sometimes known as "[[management science]]" (but distinct from Taylor's [[scientific management]]), attempts to take a [[science|scientific]] approach to solving decision-problems and can apply directly to multiple management problems, particularly in the areas of [[logistics]] and operations.

Some of the later 20th-century developments include the [[theory of constraints]] (introduced in 1984), [[management by objectives]] (systematized in 1954), the {{ill|Harzburg Model|de|Harzburger Modell}}<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Yamazaki
 |first1               = Toshio
 |date                 = 9 December 2024
 |chapter              = 7.2 Deployment of Human Relations in Germany
 |title                = Japanese and German Enterprises: Comparison of Industrial Concentration System and Business Management
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=Z-c2EQAAQBAJ
 |publication-place    = Singapore
 |publisher            = Springer Nature Singapore
 |page                 = 183
 |isbn                 = 9789819748808
 |access-date          = 30 April 2025
 |quote                = Original management models, such as the Harzburg model, also had a great effect. [...] Many firms found this model attractive; after the 1950s and 1960s, it was widely adopted in Germany [...].
}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Avram
 |first1               = Elena
 |last2                = Avasilcai
 |first2               = Silvia
 |last3                = Bujor
 |first3               = Adriana
 |editor-last1         = Prostean
 |editor-first1        = Gabriela I.
 |editor-last2         = Lavios
 |editor-first2        = Juan J.
 |editor-last3         = Brancu
 |editor-first3        = Laura
 |editor-last4         = Şahin
 |editor-first4        = Faruk
 |date                 = 23 April 2025
 |chapter              = Elements of the Harzburg Management Model as a vector for Increasing Employee Motivation
 |title                = Management, Innovation and Entrepreneurship in Challenging Global Times: Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium in Management (SIM 2021)
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=X9MCMQAACAAJ
 |series               = Lecture Notes in Management and Industrial Engineering
 |publication-place    = Cham (Zug)
 |publisher            = Springer Nature
 |page                 = 268
 |isbn                 = 9783031471643
 |access-date          = 26 April 2025 
 |quote                =  [...] six central elements of the Harzburg Model: leadership principles, decentralization of the decision-making process, communication pattern, job description, delegation of responsibility and employee's development and organizational support.
}}
</ref>
(developed by {{ill|Reinhard Höhn|de|Reinhard Höhn}} in post-war Germany), [[business process reengineering|re-engineering]] (the early 1990s), [[Six Sigma]] (1986), [[management by walking around]] (1970s), the [[Viable system model]] (1972), and various [[information technology| information-technology]]-driven theories such as [[agile software development]] (so-named from 2001), as well as group-management theories such as [[Cog's Ladder]] (1972) and the notion of [[Tom Peters|"thriving on chaos"]]<ref>
{{cite book
 | last1 = Peters
 | first1 = Thomas J.
 | author-link1 = Tom Peters
 | title = Thriving on Chaos: Handbook for a Management Revolution
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ly4yuwEACAAJ
 | series = Perennial Library
 | volume = 7184
 | publisher = Knopf
 | date = 1987
 | isbn = 9780394560618
 | access-date = 7 September 2020
}}
</ref> (1987).

As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the 20th century and gave perceived practitioners of the art/science of management a certain amount of prestige, so the way opened for [[business philosophies and popular management theories|popularised systems of management ideas]] to peddle their wares. In this context, many [[management fad]]s may have had more to do with [[pop psychology]] than with scientific theories of management.

Business management includes the following branches:{{citation needed|date=September 2020}}

# [[Finance|financial management]]
# [[human resource management]]
# [[management cybernetics]]
# [[information technology management]] (responsible for [[management information systems]] )
# [[marketing management]]
# [[operations management]] and [[Manufacturing|production]] management
# [[strategic management]]