Editing Metacognition (section)

==Strategies==
Metacognitive-like processes are especially ubiquitous when it comes to the discussion of [[self-regulated learning]]. Self-regulation requires metacognition by looking at one's awareness of their learning and planning further learning methodology.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/prin/csj/2012/00000046/00000004/art00018|title=The Importance of Self-Regulation for College Student Learning|last=Cohen|first=Marisa|date=2012-12-01|journal=College Student Journal|volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=892–902 |language=en|access-date=2020-01-31}}</ref> Attentive metacognition is a salient feature of good self-regulated learners, but does not guarantee automatic application.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Tyler M.|last2=Geraci|first2=Lisa|date=2011-12-01|title=Training metacognition in the classroom: the influence of incentives and feedback on exam predictions|journal=Metacognition and Learning|language=en|volume=6|issue=3|pages=303–314|doi=10.1007/s11409-011-9083-7|s2cid=16244272|issn=1556-1631}}</ref> Reinforcing collective discussion of metacognition is a salient feature of self-critical and self-regulating social groups.<ref name=":4" />  The activities of strategy selection and application include those concerned with an ongoing attempt to plan, check, monitor, select, revise, evaluate, etc.

Metacognition is 'stable' in that learners' initial decisions derive from the pertinent facts about their cognition through years of learning experience. Simultaneously, it is also 'situated' in the sense that it depends on learners' familiarity with the task, motivation, emotion, and so forth. Individuals need to regulate their thoughts about the strategy they are using and adjust it based on the situation to which the strategy is being applied.  At a professional level, this has led to emphasis on the development of [[reflective practice]], particularly in the education and health-care professions.

Recently, the notion has been applied to the study of second language learners in the field of [[English as a foreign or second language|TESOL]] and [[applied linguistics]] in general (e.g., Wenden, 1987; Zhang, 2001, 2010). This new development has been much related to Flavell (1979), where the notion of metacognition is elaborated within a tripartite theoretical framework. Learner metacognition is defined and investigated by examining their person knowledge, task knowledge and strategy knowledge.

Wenden (1991) has proposed and used this framework and Zhang (2001) has adopted this approach and investigated second language learners' metacognition or metacognitive knowledge. In addition to exploring the relationships between learner metacognition and performance, researchers are also interested in the effects of metacognitively-oriented strategic instruction on reading comprehension (e.g., Garner, 1994, in first language contexts, and Chamot, 2005; Zhang, 2010). The efforts are aimed at developing [[learner autonomy]], [[interdependence]] and [[Self-regulated learning|self-regulation]].

Metacognition helps people to perform many cognitive tasks more effectively.<ref name="Metcalfe"/> Strategies for promoting metacognition include self-questioning (e.g. "What do I already know about this topic? How have I solved problems like this before?"), thinking aloud while performing a task, and making graphic representations (e.g. concept maps, flow charts, semantic webs) of one's thoughts and knowledge.  Carr, 2002, argues that the physical act of writing plays a large part in the development of metacognitive skills.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gammil | first1 = D. | year = 2006 | title = Learning the Write Way | journal = The Reading Teacher | volume = 59 | issue = 8| pages = 754–762 | doi = 10.1598/RT.59.8.3}}</ref>

Strategy Evaluation matrices (SEM) can help to improve the ''knowledge of cognition'' component of metacognition.  The SEM works by identifying the declarative (Column 1), procedural (Column 2) and conditional (Column 3 and 4) knowledge about specific strategies.  The SEM can help individuals identify the strength and weaknesses about certain strategies as well as introduce them to new strategies that they can add to their repertoire.<ref name="Schraw1998a">{{cite journal|last=Schraw|first=Gregory|title=Promoting general metacogntive awareness|journal=Instructional Science|year=1998|volume=26|pages=113–125|doi=10.1023/A:1003044231033|s2cid=15715418}}</ref>

A regulation checklist (RC) is a useful strategy for improving the regulation of cognition aspect of one's metacognition. RCs help individuals to implement a sequence of thoughts that allow them to go over their own metacognition.<ref name="Schraw1998a"/> King (1991) found that fifth-grade students who used a regulation checklist outperformed control students when looking at a variety of questions including written problem solving, asking strategic questions, and elaborating information.<ref>{{cite journal|last=King|first=A|title=Effects of training in strategic questioning on children's problem solving performance|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|year=1991|volume=83|pages=307–317|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.83.3.307|issue=3}}</ref>

Examples of strategies that can be taught to students are word analysis skills, active reading strategies, listening skills, organizational skills and creating mnemonic devices.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Thompson|first=L|author2=Thompson, M.|title=Neurofeedback combined with training in metacognitive strategies: Effectiveness in students with ADD|journal=Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback|year=1998|volume=23|issue=4|pages=243–63|doi=10.1023/A:1022213731956|pmid=10457815|s2cid=8437512}}</ref>

Walker and Walker have developed a model of metacognition in school learning termed [[Steering cognition|Steering Cognition]], which describes the capacity of the mind to exert conscious control over its reasoning and processing strategies in relation to the external learning task. Studies have shown that pupils with an ability to exert metacognitive regulation over their attentional and reasoning strategies used when engaged in maths, and then shift those strategies when engaged in science or then English literature learning, associate with higher academic outcomes at secondary school.