Editing Particle image velocimetry (section)

===Holographic PIV===
Holographic PIV (HPIV) encompasses a variety of experimental techniques which use the interference of coherent light scattered by a particle and a reference beam to encode information of the amplitude and phase of the scattered light incident on a sensor plane. This encoded information, known as a [[hologram]], can then be used to reconstruct the original intensity field by illuminating the hologram with the original reference beam via optical methods or digital approximations. The intensity field is interrogated using 3-D cross-correlation techniques to yield a velocity field.

Off-axis HPIV uses separate beams to provide the object and reference waves. This setup is used to avoid [[speckle noise]] form being generated from interference of the two waves within the scattering medium, which would occur if they were both propagated through the medium. An off-axis experiment is a highly complex optical system comprising numerous optical elements, and the reader is referred to an example schematic in Sheng et al.<ref name=sheng_2008>{{cite journal | last1 = Sheng | first1 = J. | last2 = Malkiel | first2 = E. | last3 = Katz | first3 = J. | year = 2008 | title = Using digital holographic microscopy for simultaneous measurements of 3D near wall velocity and wall shear stress in a turbulent boundary layer | journal = Experiments in Fluids | volume = 45 | issue = 6| pages = 1023–1035 | doi=10.1007/s00348-008-0524-2| bibcode = 2008ExFl...45.1023S | s2cid = 123170183 }}</ref> for a more complete presentation.

In-line holography is another approach that provides some unique advantages for particle imaging. Perhaps the largest of these is the use of forward scattered light, which is orders of magnitude brighter than scattering oriented normal to the beam direction. Additionally, the optical setup of such systems is much simpler because the residual light does not need to be separated and recombined at a different location. The in-line configuration also provides a relatively easy extension to apply CCD sensors, creating a separate class of experiments known as digital in-line holography. The complexity of such setups shifts from the optical setup to image post-processing, which involves the use of simulated reference beams. Further discussion of these topics is beyond the scope of this article and is treated in Arroyo and Hinsch<ref>M. P. Arroyo and K. D. Hinsch, "Recent Developments of PIV towards 3D Measurements, pp. 127-154, Springer, 2008.</ref>

A variety of issues degrade the quality of HPIV results. The first class of issues involves the reconstruction itself. In holography, the object wave of a particle is typically assumed to be spherical; however, due to Mie scattering theory, this wave is a complex shape which can distort the reconstructed particle. Another issue is the presence of substantial speckle noise which lowers the overall signal-to-noise ratio of particle images. This effect is of greater concern for in-line holographic systems because the reference beam is propagated through the volume along with the scattered object beam. Noise can also be introduced through impurities in the scattering medium, such as temperature variations and window blemishes. Because holography requires coherent imaging, these effects are much more severe than traditional imaging conditions. The combination of these factors increases the complexity of the correlation process. In particular, the speckle noise in an HPIV recording often prevents traditional image-based correlation methods from being used. Instead, single particle identification and correlation are implemented, which set limits on particle number density. A more comprehensive outline of these error sources is given in Meng et al.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Meng | first1 = H. | last2 = Pan | first2 = G. | last3 = Pu | first3 = Y. | last4 = Woodward | first4 = S. H. | year = 2004 | title = Holographic particle image velocimetry: from film to digital recording | journal = Measurement Science and Technology | volume = 15 | issue = 4| pages = 673–685 | doi=10.1088/0957-0233/15/4/009| bibcode = 2004MeScT..15..673M | s2cid = 250922660 }}</ref>

In light of these issues, it may seem that HPIV is too complicated and error-prone to be used for flow measurements. However, many impressive results have been obtained with all holographic approaches. Svizher and Cohen<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Svizher | first1 = A. | last2 = Cohen | first2 = J. | year = 2006 | title = Holographic particle image velocimetry system for measurement of hairpin vortices in air channel flow | journal = Experiments in Fluids | volume = 40 | issue = 5| pages = 708–722 | doi=10.1007/s00348-006-0108-y| bibcode = 2006ExFl...40..708S | s2cid = 125034239 }}</ref> used a hybrid HPIV system to study the physics of hairpin vortices. Tao et al.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tao | first1 = B. | last2 = Katz | first2 = J. | last3 = Meneveau | first3 = C. | year = 2000 | title = Geometry and scale relationships in high reynolds number turbulence determined from three-dimensional holographic velocimetry | journal = Physics of Fluids | volume = 12 | issue = 5| pages = 941–944 | doi=10.1063/1.870348| bibcode = 2000PhFl...12..941T }}</ref> investigated the alignment of vorticity and strain rate tensors in high Reynolds number turbulence. As a final example, Sheng et al.<ref name=sheng_2008 /> used holographic microscopy to perform near-wall measurements of turbulent shear stress and velocity in turbulent boundary layers.