Editing Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (section)

==References==
{{Reflist|25em|refs=
<ref name=Condit>{{Cite report |last=Condit |first=Kenneth W. |year=1992 |orig-year=1971 classified vol |chapter=Chapter 15: Continental Defense |title=The Joint Chiefs of Staff and National Policy: 1955–1956 |volume=VI of <u>History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff</u> |publisher=Historical Office, Joint Staff |location=Washington, D.C. | quote= p. 268 Major elements to be developed to a high state of readiness by the beginning of 1957 included the Distant Early Warning (DEW) Line and an air defense control system employing semiautomatic control centers.1 … At the beginning of 1955, the radar warning systems consisted of 83 permanent radars in the United States, 33 permanent radars of the Pine Tree system in Canada, 12 permanent radars in Alaska, and six shipborne radars stationed off the east coast of the United States. … To facilitate CONAD's job of absorbing data from warning radars and feeding the appropriate instructions to interceptor and antiaircraft forces, the Air Force had sponsored the development of the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) system by the Lincoln Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The SAGE system was adopted but was not to become operational until January 1959. … the DEW Line…became operational shortly afterward, on 13 Aug 57. … Chapter 15. Continental Defense 1. NSC 5408, 24 Feb 54, CCS 381 US (5-23-46) sec 37.}} (Condit includes detailed numbers of 1954, 1956, and 1957 radar stations on p. 269 Table 13.)</ref>

<ref name=DelPapa>{{Cite report |last1=Del Papa |first1=Dr. E. Michael |last2=Warner |first2=Mary P. |date=October 1987 |title=A Historical Chronology of the Electronic Systems Division 1947–1986 |url=http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a201708.pdf |number=ESD-TR-88-276 (AD-A201 708) |access-date=2012-07-19 |quote=''Semi-Automatic Direction Center System, later known as…Semi-Automatic Ground Environment System, in essence, the Lincoln Transition System.'' |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224105532/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a201708.pdf |archive-date=2013-12-24 }}</ref>

<ref name=EdwardsBenj>{{Cite journal |last=Edwards |first=Benj |date=January 24, 2013 |title=The Never-Before-Told Story of the World's First Computer Art (It's a Sexy Dame) |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/01/the-never-before-told-story-of-the-worlds-first-computer-art-its-a-sexy-dame/267439/ |journal=[[The Atlantic]] |access-date=2013-02-16 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217134853/http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/01/the-never-before-told-story-of-the-worlds-first-computer-art-its-a-sexy-dame/267439/ |archive-date=February 17, 2013 }}</ref>

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<ref name=Edwards1996>{{Cite book |last=Edwards |first=Paul N |year=1996 |chapter=Chapter 3: SAGE |chapter-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011116023240/http://www.si.umich.edu/~pne/PDF/cw.ch3.pdf |title=The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America |url=http://www.si.umich.edu/~pne/cw.htm |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=MIT Press |page=19 |access-date=2013-04-23 |quote=SAGE – Air Force project 416L – became the pattern for at least twenty-five other major military command-control systems … the [[Air Force Cambridge Research Center]] (AFCRC) [had] recently developed methods for digital transmission of data over telephone lines [with] [[Digital Radar Relay]] (DRR). …was the key issue.<sup>55</sup>  The DRR research, begun just after World War II, had taken four years to complete.  Its availability solved one of the many analog-to-digital conversion problems faced by the eventual SAGE. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011116023240/http://www.si.umich.edu/~pne/cw.htm |archive-date=2001-11-16 }} (Edwards footnote 55 cites Harrington p. 370)</ref>

<ref name=Everett>{{Cite journal |author=Harrington, Jacobs, Tropp|editor=Everett, Robert R |year=1983 |title=Special Issue: SAGE (Semi-Automatic Ground Environment) |journal=Annals of the History of Computing |volume=5 |issue=4|display-authors=etal}}.  Articles include:
:{{Cite journal |last=Harrington |first= John V. |year=1983 |title=Radar Data Transmission |journal=Annals of the History of Computing|volume=5|issue=4 |pages=370–374 |doi=10.1109/MAHC.1983.10100|s2cid= 7227862 }} (cited by Edwards, 1996)
:{{Cite journal |last=Jacobs |first=John B |date=Oct 1983 |title=SAGE Overview |journal=Annals of the History of Computing |volume=5|issue=4 |doi=10.1109/mahc.1983.10101 |pages=323–329|s2cid=154313 }} (cited by Schaffel 310)
:{{Cite journal |last1=Tropp |first1=Henry S. (moderator) |last2=Everett |first2=Robert R.<!--(Everett cited by Schaffel p. 311)--> |year=1983 |title=A Perspective on SAGE: Discussion |journal=Annals of the History of Computing |volume=5|issue=4 |pages=375–98 |doi=10.1109/mahc.1983.10091|s2cid=7490741 |display-authors=etal}} (citation 15 of Edwards, 1996)
:{{Verify source|reason=The Volume & Number need verified to confirm the Astrahan/Jacobs article is in the Special Issue and not a different issue of the journal |date=April 2013}}{{Cite journal |last1=Astrahan |first1=Morton M. |last2=Jacobs |first2=John F. |title=History of the Design of the SAGE Computer, the AN-FSQ-7 |journal=Annals of the History of Computing|page=341 |doi=10.1109/mahc.1983.10098 |volume=5|issue=4 |year=1983 |s2cid=14273110 }} (cited by Schaffel p. 310)</ref>

<ref name=FM44>{{Cite journal |date=February 1963 |title=Missile Master… |type=field manual |volume=FM44-1 |publisher=United States Army |quote=[[Martin AN/FSG-1 Antiaircraft Defense System|AN/FSG-1]] … f.  Utilizes reference track data from local radars and voice communications with the NORAD sector direction center (NSDC) or GC 1 station when SAGE data is unavailable.<!--p. 4--> … 22. Normal Tracking The S & E officers and the trackers monitor the SAGE reference track data<!--p. 14--> …at NORAD SAGE direction centers…personnel operate the air defense artillery director (ADAD) consoles … An Army field grade officer serves as the ADA battle staff officer on the NORAD sector commander's operational staff.<!--p. 17--> … SAGE SELECTOR two-position switch: Selects SAGE 1 or SAGE 2 (primary or secondary SAGE DC) as the source of SAGE data.<!--p. 28--> … 45. Range-Height Subsystem a. Equipment.  The range-height equipment consists of two RHI consoles }}</ref>

<ref name=Hellige>{{Cite report |last=Hellige |first=Hans Dieter |date=February 1993 |title=Actors, Visions and Developments in the History of Computer Communications |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9A4BHAAACAAJ<!--http://www.artec.uni-bremen.de/team/hellige/HDH-artec-Paper20E.pdf--> |publisher="Work and Technology" Research Centre |access-date=2012-04-02 }}</ref>

<ref name=Intro>{{cite web |title=Introduction |url=http://ed-thelen.org/SageIntro.html |publisher=Ed-Thelen.org |quote=The function of the Control Center in solving the air defense problem is to combine, summarize, and display the air battle picture for the supervision of the several sectors within the division.  … The typical Control Center (CC) building housing the AN/FSQ-8 Combat Control Central is a 3-story structure of the same type construction as the DC building. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403032515/http://ed-thelen.org/SageIntro.html |archive-date=2012-04-03 }} (p. 7)</ref>

<ref name=IYD>{{cite AV media |author=Colonel John Morton (narrator) |title=In Your Defense |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=06drBN8nlWg |format=digitized movie |publisher=Western Electric |access-date=2012-04-03 |quote=''The [[System Development Corporation]]…in the design of massive computer programs … Burroughs…electronic equipment … Western Electric…assist the Air Force in coordinating and managing the entire effort…and design of buildings.   …SAGE project office…Air Material Command'' |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120703160549/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=06drBN8nlWg |archive-date=2012-07-03 }}<!-- '''NOTE''': The film identifies "Direction Center" vice "Data Center".<sup>minute 5:15</sup>-->{{When|date=May 2013}}<!-- Is there a year identified in this movie?  --></ref>

<ref name=McMullen1980>{{Cite report |last=McMullen |first=R. F. |date=15 Feb 1980 |title=History of Air Defense Weapons 1946–1962 |volume=ADC Historical Study No. 14 |publisher=Historical Division, Office of information, HQ ADC |page=224}} (cited by Volume I p. 271 & Schaffel p. 325)</ref>

<ref name=NORAD1958A>{{Cite NORAD Historical Summary |version=1958 |access-date=2013-04-30}} <!--|publisher=-->Directorate of Command History: Office of Information Services; p. 21: "''DC's, and CC's, which were to screen and evaluate the reports before forwarding to NORAD headquarters.  ALERT NETWORK NUMBER 1 On 1 July 1958, a new Alert # 1 network was placed in operation (the old network was to remain in operation as a back-up until 1 August 1958).  The new network connected NORAD on 1 July 1958 with 33 Stations that required air defense alert and warning information. This included such agencies as major commands, air divisions, regions, and the USAF Command Post. Only 29 of the stations operating on 1 July were both transmit and receive stations, the other four ([[Tactical Air Command|TAC Headquarters]], [[Sandia Base]], [[Raven Rock Mountain Complex|ADCC (Blue Ridge Summit)]], and the [[Presidio at San Francisco]]) were receive-only stations.  …the new system…gave NORAD the ability to tell which station received its alert messages and which did not.  <!--The new TTY circuits had a built-in automatic sequential authenticator that furnished this information. Previously, NORAD had no knowledge of the effectiveness of its alerting system unless the COC personnel telephoned each individual. receiving station. -->The new system also had two master stations – [[Ent Air Force Base|NORAD [at Ent AFB]]] and the [[ALCOP]] at [[Richards-Gebaur AFB]].  This feature permitted the ALCOP to continue operations of the network and carry on with the alert procedures should NORAD become a war casualty.''"</ref>

<ref name=NORAD1958B>{{Cite NORAD Historical Summary |version=1958b |access-date=2013-04-30}} "''USAF also set down a new schedule (see table preceding). This schedule was to be included in an entirely new SAGE schedule (Schedule A) to be prepared by the '''SAGE Project Office'''. The phasing was to be as follows. The last combat center, AN/FSQ-8, to be installed under SAGE Schedule 7 (Improved), was to be at McChord AFB (25th Air Division).  Subsequent combat facilities and equipment were to be cancelled with the exception of (1) one AN/FSQ-8 that was to be converted to an AN/FSQ-7, using FY 1959 funds, to be installed at the Sioux City DC, and (2) the combat center building at Minot.''" (improved) On April 1, 1966, Combat Center CC-03 at McChord AFB, WA was inactivated in conjunction with the activation of Combat Center CC-05 at Hamilton AFB, CA, and the combining of 25th, 26th and 27th NORAD divisions into the new Headquarters Western NORAD Region at HAFB.  CC-05 utilized a 3-String AN/GSA-51 computer system.  CC-05 and Headquarters Western NORAD Region were inactivated at Hamilton AFB on December 31, 1969.</ref>

<ref name=NORAD1959A>{{Cite NORAD Historical Summary |version=1959 |access-date=2013-04-30}}</ref>

<ref name=NORAD1959B>{{Cite NORAD Historical Summary |version=1959b |access-date=2013-04-30}}</ref>

<ref name=Pugh>{{Cite book |last=Pugh |title=Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bc8BGhSOawgC&pg=PA210|format=[[Google Books]]|isbn=978-0-262-16147-3|year=1995 |publisher=MIT Press }}</ref>

<ref name=RedmondSmith>{{Cite book |last1=Redmond |first1=Kent C |last2=Smith |first2=Thomas Malcom |year=2000 |title=From Whirlwind to MITRE: The R&D Story of The SAGE Air Defense Computer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dxZVbxcf_IoC&q=sage |format=Google Books |publisher=MIT Press |access-date=2013-05-02 |quote=the "SAGE Red Book"--Operationa Plan, Semi-Automatic Ground Environment System for Air Defense (Formerly Designated The Transition System)|isbn=9780262264266 }} (The Redmond & Smith citation for the operation plan identifies the date)</ref>

<ref name=SageTalk>{{cite web |year=1998 |title=Vigilance and Vacuum Tubes: The SAGE System 1956-63 |url=http://ed-thelen.org/Sage-Talk.html |format=SAGE Talk Transcript |publisher=Ed-Thelen.org |access-date=2013-02-16 |quote=the Whirlwind computer, which was a digital version of the [[Airplane Stability and Control Analyzer|ASCA]], was about five million dollars, in 1950s dollars … For the 1949 fiscal year, MIT requested 1.5 million dollars for the Whirlwind project. … one [SAGE computer] was at Lincoln Lab, …the XD-1, and the other one was at Kingston, the XD-2. So we used both those sites for development. … The XD-1 was a simplex system…not duplex … the original vacuum-tube computers—the last one was finally taken down in 1983, still operating. <!--The total cost of the system…between four and twelve billion dollars, in dollars of around 1960 -->… IBM got…about 500 million dollars…to build the 56 computers. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130330140132/http://www.ed-thelen.org/Sage-Talk.html |archive-date=2013-03-30 }}</ref>

<ref name=Schaffel>{{cite book|last=Schaffel |first=Kenneth |title=The Emerging Shield: The Air Force and the Evolution of Continental Air Defense, 1945–1960 |url=https://archive.org/details/TheEmergingShield |date=1991 |publisher=Office of Air Force History, United States Air Force |isbn=978-0-912799-60-5 |quote=A SAGE component, a 64 x 64 [4[[kilobyte|K]]] magnetic core memory … SAGE direction center.  This installation is located at Stewart Air Force Base in New York state. …[Hancock Field] combined direction-combat center was located at Syracuse, New York.}} [captions of p. 198, 208, & 265 photos]  '''NOTE''': Schaffel's history uses the same name as "The Emerging Shield: The Air Defense Ground Environment," Air University Quarterly Review 8, no. 2 (spring 1956).</ref>

<!--ref name=SchaffelCh3>{{Cite book |chapter=Chapter 3: Planning for Air Defense in the Postwar Era |title=Emerging Shield |pages=47–81 (pdf pp. 62–96) }}</ref-->

<ref name=SMECC>{{Citation |title=SMECC - Home |url=http://www.smecc.org/ |format=museum website: SMECC.org |location=Glendale, Arizona |publisher=[[Southwest Museum of Engineering, Communications and Computation]] |access-date=2013-05-08 |quote=Archivist Ed Sharpe near some of the SAGE artifacts at SMECC. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524125949/http://smecc.org/ |archive-date=2013-05-24 }}
:a.  {{Cite report |last=DeWerth |first=John P. |title=…Sage Memories |url=http://www.smecc.org/sage_a_n_fsq-7.htm |type=personal notes |publisher=SMECC.org |access-date=2012-04-03 |quote=Senior Director's keyed console…fire button |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327032502/http://www.smecc.org/sage_a_n_fsq-7.htm |archive-date=2012-03-27 }}
:b.  {{cite web |title=[AN/GSA-51] |url=http://www.smecc.org/burroughs_buic_-__an_gsa-51__sage_backup.htm |type=system description |publisher=SMECC.org |quote=BUIC … Burroughs…D825 … McChord AFB…August 1983 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141003012005/http://www.smecc.org/burroughs_buic_-__an_gsa-51__sage_backup.htm |archive-date=2014-10-03 }}
:c.  {{cite web |title=Phoenix Air Defense Sector |url=http://www.smecc.org/sage-__phoenix_air_defense_sector_%26_4629_support_squadron.htm |type=unit/sector description |publisher=SMECC.org |quote=Luke AFB…February 1984 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103144548/http://www.smecc.org/sage-__phoenix_air_defense_sector_%26_4629_support_squadron.htm |archive-date=2014-01-03 }}</ref>

<ref name=VolumeI>{{Cite book |title=History of Strategic Air and Ballistic Missile Defense: Volume I: 1945–1955 |url=http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/bmd/BMDV1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110121813/http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/bmd/BMDV1.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-10  |publisher=US Army |page=128 |quote=See footnote #188: Futrell, ''Ideas, Concepts, Doctrine'', pp. 486–487; Grant, ''The Development of Continental Air Defense'' pp. 73–74 }}</ref>

<ref name=Winkler>{{Cite report |last1=Winkler |first1=David F |last2=Webster |first2=Julie L |date=June 1997 |title=Searching the Skies: The Legacy of the United States Cold War Defense Radar Program |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA331231.pdf |location=Champaign, IL |lccn=97020912 |publisher=U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories |access-date=2013-04-23 |quote=''"BUIC II radar sites would be capable of incorporating data feeds from other radar sectors directly onto their radar screens. '' |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121201202922/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA331231 |archive-date=2012-12-01 }}</ref>
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