Editing Chechen language (section)

==Grammar==
Chechen is an [[agglutinative language]] with an [[Ergative–absolutive language|ergative–absolutive]] [[morphosyntactic alignment]]. Chechen nouns belong to one of six genders or classes, each with a specific prefix with which the verb or an accompanying [[adjective]] agrees. The verb does not agree with person or number, having only tense forms and participles. Among these are an [[optative mood|optative]] and an [[antipassive voice|antipassive]]. Some verbs, however, do not take these prefixes.<ref>Awde, Nicholas and Galäv, Muhammad, ''Chechen''; p. 11. {{ISBN|0-7818-0446-9}}</ref>

Chechen is an [[ergative language|ergative]], [[dependent-marking language]] using eight [[grammatical case|cases]] ([[absolutive case|absolutive]], [[genitive case|genitive]], [[dative case|dative]], [[ergative case|ergative]], [[allative case|allative]], [[instrumental case|instrumental]], [[locative case|locative]] and [[comparative case|comparative]]) and a large number of [[postposition]]s to indicate the role of nouns in sentences.

Word order is consistently [[left-branching language|left-branching]] (like in [[Japanese language|Japanese]] or [[Turkish language|Turkish]]), so that [[adjective]]s, [[demonstrative]]s and [[relative clause]]s precede the nouns they modify. [[Complementizer]]s and [[adverbial subordinator]]s, as in other [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast]] and in [[Northwest Caucasian languages]], are [[affix]]es rather than independent words.

Chechen also presents interesting challenges for [[lexicography]], as creating new words in the language relies on fixation of whole phrases rather than adding to the end of existing words or combining existing words. It can be difficult to decide which phrases belong in the dictionary, because the language's grammar does not permit the borrowing of new [[verb]]al [[morpheme]]s to express new concepts.<ref>Awde and Galäv; ''Chechen''; p. 11</ref> Instead, the verb '''dan''' (to do) is combined with [[noun phrase|nominal phrase]]s to correspond with new concepts imported from other languages.

===Noun classes===
Chechen nouns are divided into six lexically arbitrary [[noun class]]es.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RtyhAwAAQBAJ&q=chechen+noun+classes&pg=PA8|title=Chechen-English English-Chechen Dictionary and Phrasebook|first1=Nicholas|last1=Awde|first2=Muhammad|last2=Galaev|date=22 May 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136802331|via=Google Books}}</ref> Morphologically, noun classes may be indexed by changes in the prefix of the accompanying verb and, in many cases, the adjective too. The first two of these classes apply to human beings, although some grammarians count these as two and some as a single class; the other classes however are much more lexically arbitrary. Chechen noun classes are named according to the prefix that indexes them:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Noun class 
!Noun example!! Singular prefix !! Plural prefix 
!Singular agreement
!Plural agreement
|-
| 1. v-class
|{{Transliteration|ce|k'ant}} {{gloss|boy}} || {{Transliteration|ce|'''v-'''}} || rowspan="2" | '''{{Transliteration|ce|b-}}/{{Transliteration|ce|d-}}''' 
|{{Transliteration|ce|k'ant '''v-'''eza '''v-'''u}} {{gloss|the boy is heavy}}
|{{Transliteration|ce|k'entii '''d-'''eza '''d-'''u}} {{gloss|the boys are heavy}}
|-
| 2. y-class
|{{Transliteration|ce|zuda}} {{gloss|woman}} || {{Transliteration|ce|'''y-'''}} 
|{{Transliteration|ce|zuda '''y'''-eza '''y'''-u}} {{gloss|the woman is heavy}}
|{{Transliteration|ce|zudari '''b-'''eza '''b-'''u}} {{gloss|the women are heavy}}
|-
| 3. y-class II 
|{{Transliteration|ce|ph'āgal}} {{gloss|rabbit}} || colspan="2" | {{Transliteration|ce|'''y-'''}}
|{{Transliteration|ce|ph'āgal '''y'''-eza '''y'''-u}} {{gloss|the rabbit is heavy}}
|{{Transliteration|ce|ph'āgalash '''y'''-eza '''y'''-u}} {{gloss|the rabbits are heavy}}
|-
| 4. d-class 
|{{Transliteration|ce|naž}} {{gloss|oak}} || colspan="2" | {{Transliteration|ce|'''d-'''}}
|{{Transliteration|ce|naž '''d'''-eza '''d'''-u}} {{gloss|the oak is heavy}}
|{{Transliteration|ce|niežnash '''d'''-eza '''d'''-u}} {{gloss|the oaks are heavy}}
|-
| 5. b-class 
|{{Transliteration|ce|mangal}} {{gloss|scythe}} || rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|ce|'''b-'''}} || '''{{Transliteration|ce|b-/Ø-}}'''
|{{Transliteration|ce|mangal '''b-'''eza '''b-'''u}} {{gloss|the scythe is heavy}}
|{{Transliteration|ce|mangalash '''b-'''eza '''b-'''u}} {{gloss|the scythes are heavy}}
|-
| 6. b-class II 
|{{Transliteration|ce|ˤaž}} {{gloss|apple}}|| {{Transliteration|ce|'''d-'''}} 
|{{Transliteration|ce|ˤaž '''b-'''eza '''b'''-u}} {{gloss|the apple is heavy}}
|{{Transliteration|ce|ˤežash '''d-'''eza '''d-'''u}} {{gloss|the apples are heavy}}
|}

When a noun denotes a human being, it usually falls into v- or y-Classes (1 or 2). Most nouns referring to male entities fall into the v-class, whereas Class 2 contains words related to female entities. Thus {{Transliteration|ce|lūlaxuo}} {{gloss|a neighbour}} is normally considered class 1, but it takes {{Transliteration|ce|v-}} if referring to a male neighbour and {{Transliteration|ce|y-}} if a female. This is similar to the Spanish word {{lang|es|estudiante}} {{gloss|student}}, where {{lang|es|el estudiante}} refers to a male student, and {{lang|es|la estudiante}} refers to a female student.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://dle.rae.es/estudiante|entry=estudiante |dictionary=Diccionario de la lengua española |lang=es |edition=23.7 |date=November 2023 |access-date=2024-05-10 |publisher=[[Real Academia Española]] |title=Estudiante &#124; Diccionario de la lengua española }}</ref>

In a few words, changing the prefixes before the nouns indicates grammatical gender; thus: {{lang|ce|vоsha}} {{gloss|brother}} → {{Transliteration|ce|yisha}} {{gloss|sister}}. Some nouns denoting human beings, however, are not in Classes 1 or 2: {{Transliteration|ce|bēr}} {{gloss|child}}, for example, is in class 3.

====Classed adjectives====
Only a few of Chechen's adjectives index noun class agreement, termed ''classed adjectives'' in the literature. Classed adjectives are listed with the d-class prefix in the romanizations below:<ref name=DottonWagner>{{Cite web|title=A Grammar of Chechen|last1=Dotton|first1=Zura|last2=Wagner|first2=John Doyle|url=https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf|publisher=Duke University, Slavic Centers|access-date=10 June 2020}}</ref>
* {{lang|ce-Cyrl|деза}} ({{transliteration|ce|d-eza}}): 'heavy' 
* {{lang|ce-Cyrl|довха}} ({{transliteration|ce|d-ouxa}}): 'hot' 
* {{lang|ce-Cyrl|деха}} ({{transliteration|ce|d-iexa}}): 'long' 
* {{lang|ce-Cyrl|дуькъа}} ({{transliteration|ce|d-yq’a}}): 'thick' 
* {{lang|ce-Cyrl|дораха}} ({{transliteration|ce|d-oraxa}}): 'cheap' 
* {{lang|ce-Cyrl|дерстана}} ({{transliteration|ce|d-erstana}}): 'fat' 
* {{lang|ce-Cyrl|дуьткъа}} ({{transliteration|ce|d-ytq’a}}): 'thin' 
* {{lang|ce-Cyrl|доца}} ({{transliteration|ce|d-oca}}): 'short' 
* {{lang|ce-Cyrl|дайн}} ({{transliteration|ce|d-ain}}): 'light' 
* {{lang|ce-Cyrl|дуьзна}} ({{transliteration|ce|d-yzna}}): 'full' 
* {{lang|ce-Cyrl|даьржана}} ({{transliteration|ce|d-aerzhana}}): 'spread' 
* {{lang|ce-Cyrl|доккха}} ({{transliteration|ce|d-oqqa}}): 'large/big/old'

===Declension===
Whereas [[Indo-European languages]] code noun class and case conflated in the same [[morpheme]]s, Chechen nouns show no gender marking but decline in eight [[grammatical case]]s, four of which are core cases (i.e. [[Absolutive case|absolutive]], [[Ergative case|ergative]], [[Genitive case|genitive]], and [[Dative case|dative]]) in singular and plural. Below the paradigm for "говр" (horse).

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Case !! singular !! plural
|-
| absolutive || говр ''gour'' || говраш ''gourash''
|-
| genitive || говран ''gouran'' || говрийн ''gouriin''
|-
| dative || говрана ''gour(a)na'' || говрашна ''gourashna''
|-
| ergative || говро ''gouruo'' || говраша ''gourasha''
|-
| allative || говре ''gourie'' || говрашка ''gourashka''
|-
| instrumental || говраца ''gouratsa'' || говрашца ''gourashtsa''
|-
| locative || говрах ''gourax'' || говрех ''gouriäx''
|-
| comparative || говрал ''goural'' || говрел ''gouriäl''
|}

===Pronouns===
The first cell has it written in the orthography; the second in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]].

{| class="wikitable"
!Case
!colspan=2|{{gcl|1SG}}
!colspan=2|{{gcl|2SG}}
!colspan=2|{{gcl|3SG}}
!colspan=2|{{gcl|1INCL}}
!colspan=2|{{gcl|1EXCL}}
!colspan=2|{{gcl|2PL}}
!colspan=2|{{gcl|3PL}}
|- 
|absolutive || {{lang|ce|со}} || {{IPA|/sʷɔ/}} || {{lang|ce|хьо}} || {{IPA|/ʜʷɔ/}} || {{lang|ce|и}}, {{lang|ce|иза}} || {{IPA|/ɪ/, /ɪzə/}} || {{lang|ce|вай}} || {{IPA|/vəɪ/}} || {{lang|ce|тхо}} || {{IPA|/txʷʰo/}} || {{lang|ce|шу}} || {{IPA|/ʃu/}} || {{lang|ce|уьш}}, {{lang|ce|уьзаш}} || {{IPA|/yʃ/, /yzəʃ/}}
|- 
|genitive || {{lang|ce|сан}} || {{IPA|/sən/}} || {{lang|ce|хьан}} || {{IPA|/ʜən/}} || {{lang|ce|цуьнан}} || {{IPA|/tsʰynən/}} || {{lang|ce|вайн}} || {{IPA|/vəɪn/}} || {{lang|ce|тхан}} || {{IPA|/txʰən/}} || {{lang|ce|шун}} || {{IPA|/ʃun/}} || {{lang|ce|церан}} || {{IPA|/tsʰierən/}}
|- 
|dative || {{lang|ce|суна}} || {{IPA|/suːnə/}} || {{lang|ce|хьуна}} || {{IPA|/ʜuːnə/}} || {{lang|ce|цунна}} || {{IPA|/tsʰunːə/}} || {{lang|ce|вайна}} || {{IPA|/vaɪnə/}} || {{lang|ce|тхуна}} || {{IPA|/txʰunə/}} || {{lang|ce|шуна}} || {{IPA|/ʃunə/}} || {{lang|ce|царна}} || {{IPA|/tsʰarnə/}}
|- 
|ergative || {{lang|ce|ас}} || {{IPA|/ʔəs/}} || {{lang|ce|ахь}} || {{IPA|/əʜ/}} || {{lang|ce|цо}} || {{IPA|/tsʰuo/}} || {{lang|ce|вай}} || {{IPA|/vəɪ/}} || {{lang|ce|оха}} || {{IPA|/ʔɔxə/}} || {{lang|ce|аша}} || {{IPA|/ʔaʃə/}} || {{lang|ce|цара}} || {{IPA|/tsʰarə/}}
|- 
|allative || {{lang|ce|соьга}} || {{IPA|/sɥœgə/}} || {{lang|ce|хьоьга}} || {{IPA|/ʜɥœgə/}} || {{lang|ce|цуьнга}} || {{IPA|/tsʰyngə/}} || {{lang|ce|вайга}} || {{IPA|/vaɪgə/}} || {{lang|ce|тхоьга}} || {{IPA|/txʰɥœgə/}} || {{lang|ce|шуьга}} || {{IPA|/ʃygə/}} || {{lang|ce|цаьрга}} || {{IPA|/tsʰærgə/}}
|- 
|instrumental || {{lang|ce|соьца}} || {{IPA|/sɥœtsʰə/}} || {{lang|ce|хьоьца}} || {{IPA|/ʜɥœtsʰə/}} || {{lang|ce|цуьнца}} || {{IPA|/tsʰyntsʰə/}} || {{lang|ce|вайца}} || {{IPA|/vaɪtsʰə/}} || {{lang|ce|тхоьца}} || {{IPA|/txʰɥœtsʰə/}} || {{lang|ce|шуьца}} || {{IPA|/ʃytsʰə/}} || {{lang|ce|цаьрца}} || {{IPA|/tsʰærtsʰə/}}
|- 
|locative || {{lang|ce|сох}} || {{IPA|/sʷɔx/}} || {{lang|ce|хьох}} || {{IPA|/ʜʷɔx/}} || {{lang|ce|цунах}} || {{IPA|/tsʰunəx/}} || {{lang|ce|вайх}} || {{IPA|/vəɪx/}} || {{lang|ce|тхох}} || {{IPA|/txʷʰɔx/}} || {{lang|ce|шух}} || {{IPA|/ʃux/}} || {{lang|ce|царах}} || {{IPA|/tsʰarəx/}}
|- 
|comparative|| {{lang|ce|сол}} || {{IPA|/sʷɔl/}} || {{lang|ce|хьол}} || {{IPA|/ʜʷɔl/}} || {{lang|ce|цул}} || {{IPA|/tsʰul/}} || {{lang|ce|вайл}} || {{IPA|/vəɪl/}} || {{lang|ce|тхол}} || {{IPA|/txʷʰɔl/}} || {{lang|ce|шул}} || {{IPA|/ʃul/}} || {{lang|ce|царел}} || {{IPA|/tsʰarɛl/}}
|-
|reflexive possessive pronouns
|{{lang|ce|сайн}}
|{{IPA|/səɪn/}}
|{{lang|ce|хьайн}}
|{{IPA|/ʜəɪn/}}
|{{lang|ce|шен}}
|{{IPA|/ʃɛn/}}
|{{lang|ce|вешан}}
|{{IPA|/vieʃən/}}
|{{lang|ce|тхайн}}
|{{IPA|/txəɪn/}}
|{{lang|ce|шайн}}
|{{IPA|/ʃəɪn/}}
|{{lang|ce|шайн}}
|{{IPA|/ʃəɪn/}}
|-
|substantives (mine, yours)
|{{lang|ce|сайниг}}
|{{IPA|/səɪnɪg/}}
|{{lang|ce|хьайниг}}
|{{IPA|/ʜəɪnɪg/}}
|{{lang|ce|шениг}}
|{{IPA|/ʃɛnɪg/}}
|{{lang|ce|вешаниг}}
|{{IPA|/vieʃənɪg/}}
|{{lang|ce|тхайниг}}
|{{IPA|/txəɪnɪg/}}
|{{lang|ce|шайниг}}
|{{IPA|/ʃəɪnɪg/}}
|{{lang|ce|шайниг}}
|{{IPA|/ʃəɪnɪg/}}
|}

The locative has still a few further forms for specific positions.

===Verbs===
Verbs do not inflect for person (except for the special d- prefix for the 1st and 2nd persons plural), only for number and tense, aspect, mood. A minority of verbs exhibit agreement prefixes, and these agree with the noun in the absolutive case (what in English translation would the subject, for intransitive verbs, or the object, with transitive verbs).

Example of verbal agreement in intransitive clause with a composite verb:
*{{lang|ce|Со цхьан сахьтехь '''вогІур ву'''}} ({{transliteration|ce|so tsHan saHteH '''voghur vu'''}}) = I (male) will come in one hour
*{{lang|ce|Со цхьан сахьтехь '''йогІур ю'''}} ({{transliteration|ce|so tsHan saHteH '''yoghur yu'''}}) = I (female) will come in one hour
Here, both the verb's future stem ''-oghur'' (will come) and the auxiliary ''-u'' (present tense of 'be') receive the prefix ''v-'' for masculine agreement and ''y-'' for feminine agreement.

In transitive clauses in compound continuous tenses formed with the auxiliary verb ''-u'' 'to be', both agent and object are in absolutive case. In this special case of a ''biabsolutive'' construction, the main verb in participial form agrees with the object, while the auxiliary agrees with the agent.
*{{lang|ce|Cо бепиг '''деш''' '''ву'''}} ({{transliteration|ce|so bepig '''diesh vu'''}}) = I (male) am making bread.
Here, the participle ''d-iesh'' agree with the object, whereas the auxiliary ''v-u'' agrees with the agent.<ref name=DottonWagner/>

Verbal tenses are formed by ablaut or suffixes, or both (there are five conjugations in total, below is one). Derived stems can be formed by suffixation as well (causative, etc.):

{| class="wikitable" 
|- bgcolor='#C0F0F0' 
!Tense
!Example
|- 
|Imperative (=infinitive) || д*ига
|- 
|simple present || д*уьгу
|- 
|present composite || д*уьгуш д*у
|- 
|near preterite || д*игу
|- 
|witnessed past || д*игира 
|- 
|perfect || д*игна
|- 
|plusquamperfect || д*игнера 
|- 
|repeated preterite || д*уьгура
|- 
|possible future || д*уьгур 
|- 
|real future || д*уьгур д*у 
|}

{| class="wikitable" 
|- bgcolor='#C0F0F0' 
!Tempus
!Basic form ("drink")
!Causative ("make drink, drench")
!Permissive ("allow to drink")
!Permissive causative ("allow to make drink")
!Potential ("be able to drink")
!Inceptive ("start drinking")
|-
|Imperative (=infinitive) || мала || мало || малийта || мала д*айта || мала д*ала || мала д*āла
|-
|simple present || молу || мала д*о || молуьйто || мала д*ойту || малало || мала д*олу 
|-
|near preterite || малу || малий || малийти || мала д*айти || мала д*ели || мала д*ēли
|-
|witnessed past || мелира || малийра || малийтира || мала д*айтира || мала д*елира || мала д*ēлира
|-
|perfect ||мелла ||малийна || малийтина || мала д*айтина || мала д*елла || мала д*аьлла
|-
|plusquamperfect ||меллера || малийнер || малийтинера || мала д*айтинера || мала д*елера || мала д*аьллера
|-
|repeated past || молура || мала д*ора || молуьйтура || мала д*ойтура || малалора || 
|-
|possible future || молур || мала д*ер || молуьйтур || мала д*ойтур || малалур || мала д*олур 
|-
|real future || молур д*у || мала д*ийр д*у || молуьйтур д*у || мала д*ойтур д*у || малалур д*у || мала д*олур д*у 
|}