Editing Cold fusion (section)

===Repulsion forces===
Because nuclei are all positively charged, they strongly repel one another.{{sfn|ps=|Schaffer|1999|p=2}} Normally, in the absence of a catalyst such as a [[Muon-catalyzed fusion|muon]], very high [[Kinetic energy|kinetic energies]] are required to overcome this [[Coulomb's law|charged repulsion]].{{sfn|ps=|Schaffer|1999|p=1}}{{sfn|ps=|Morrison|1999|pp=3–5}} Extrapolating from known fusion rates, the rate for uncatalyzed fusion at room-temperature energy would be 50 orders of magnitude lower than needed to account for the reported excess heat.<ref>{{harvnb|Huizenga|1993|p=viii}} "''Enhancing the probability of a nuclear reaction by 50 orders of magnitude (...) via the chemical environment of a metallic lattice, contradicted the very foundation of nuclear science.''", {{harvnb|Goodstein|1994}}, {{harvnb|Scaramuzzi|2000|p=4}}</ref> In muon-catalyzed fusion there are more fusions because the presence of the muon causes deuterium nuclei to be 207 times closer than in ordinary deuterium gas.<ref>{{harvnb|Close|1992|pp=32, 54}}, {{harvnb|Huizenga|1993|p=112}}</ref> But deuterium nuclei inside a palladium lattice are further apart than in deuterium gas, and there should be fewer fusion reactions, not more.<ref name="distance">{{harvnb|US DOE|1989|pp=7–8, 33, 53–58 (appendix 4.A)}}, {{harvnb|Close|1992|pp=257–258}}, {{harvnb|Huizenga|1993|p=112}}, {{harvnb|Taubes|1993|pp=253–254}} quoting [[Howard Kent Birnbaum]] in the special cold fusion session of the 1989 spring meeting of the Materials Research Society, {{harvnb|Park|2000|pp=17–18, 122}}, {{harvnb|Simon|2002|p=50}} citing {{cite journal|mode=cs2  |author1=Koonin S.E. |author2=M Nauenberg |s2cid=4335882 |year= 1989 |title= Calculated Fusion Rates in Isotopic Hydrogen Molecules |journal= Nature |issue= 6227|pages= 690–692 |doi= 10.1038/339690a0 |bibcode = 1989Natur.339..690K |volume=339}}</ref>

Paneth and Peters in the 1920s already knew that palladium can absorb up to 900 times its own volume of hydrogen gas, storing it at several thousands of times the [[atmospheric pressure]].{{sfn|ps=|Close|1992|pp=19–20}} This led them to believe that they could increase the nuclear fusion rate by simply loading palladium rods with hydrogen gas.{{sfn|ps=|Close|1992|pp=19–20}} Tandberg then tried the same experiment but used electrolysis to make palladium absorb more deuterium and force the deuterium further together inside the rods, thus anticipating the main elements of Fleischmann and Pons' experiment.{{sfn|ps=|Close|1992|pp=19–20}}<ref name="similar_to_tandberg" /> They all hoped that pairs of hydrogen nuclei would fuse together to form helium, which at the time was needed in Germany to fill [[zeppelin]]s, but no evidence of helium or of increased fusion rate was ever found.{{sfn|ps=|Close|1992|pp=19–20}}

This was also the belief of geologist Palmer, who convinced Steven Jones that the helium-3 occurring naturally in Earth perhaps came from fusion involving hydrogen isotopes inside catalysts like nickel and palladium.{{sfn|ps=|Close|1992|pp=63–64}} This led their team in 1986 to independently make the same experimental setup as Fleischmann and Pons (a palladium cathode submerged in heavy water, absorbing deuterium via electrolysis).{{sfn|ps=|Close|1992|pp=64–66}} Fleischmann and Pons had much the same belief,{{sfn|ps=|Close|1992|pp=32–33}} but they calculated the pressure to be of 10<sup>27</sup> [[Standard atmosphere (unit)|atmospheres]], when cold fusion experiments achieve a loading ratio of only one to one, which has only between 10,000 and 20,000 atmospheres.<ref group="text" name="pressure" /> [[John R. Huizenga]] says they had misinterpreted the [[Nernst equation]], leading them to believe that there was enough pressure to bring deuterons so close to each other that there would be spontaneous fusions.{{sfn|ps=|Huizenga|1993|pp=33, 47}}