Editing Content theory (section)

==Behaviorist theories==

While many theories on motivation have a [[Mentalism (psychology)|mentalistic]] perspective, [[Behaviorism|behaviorists]] focus only on the observable behavior and the theories founded on experimental evidence. In the view of behaviorism, motivation is understood as a question about what factors cause, prevent, or withhold various behaviors, while the question of, for instance, conscious motivation would be ignored. Where others would speculate about such things as values, drives, or needs, that may not be observed directly, behaviorists are interested in the observable variables that affect the type, intensity, frequency, and duration of the observable behavior. Through the basic research of such scientists as [[Ivan Pavlov|Pavlov]], [[John B. Watson|Watson]] and [[B. F. Skinner|Skinner]], several basic mechanisms that govern behavior have been identified. The most important of these are classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

===Classical and operant conditioning===
{{Main|Motivational salience}}
In [[Classical conditioning|classical (or respondent) conditioning]], behavior is understood as responses triggered by certain environmental or physical stimuli. They can be ''unconditioned'', such as in-born reflexes, or learned through the pairing of an unconditioned stimulus with a different stimulus, which then becomes a conditioned stimulus. In relation to motivation, classical conditioning might be seen as one explanation as to why an individual performs certain responses and behaviors in certain situations.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |title = Applied Behavior Analysis |last = Cooper |first = John O |publisher = Pearson Education |year = 2007 |isbn = 978-0-13-129327-4 |location = Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite book |title = Learning and Complex Behavior |last = Donahoe |first = J.W. |publisher = Ledgetop Publishing |year = 2004 |isbn = 978-0-9762371-0-5 |location = Richmond, MA, USA }}</ref> For instance, a dentist might wonder why a patient does not seem motivated to show up for an appointment, with the explanation being that the patient has associated the dentist (conditioned stimulus) with the pain (unconditioned stimulus) that elicits a fear response (conditioned response), leading to the patient being reluctant to visit the dentist.

In [[operant conditioning]], the type and frequency of behavior are determined mainly by its consequences. If a certain behavior, in the presence of a certain stimulus, is followed by a desirable consequence (a [[Reinforcement|reinforcer]]), the emitted behavior will increase in frequency in the future, in the presence of the stimulus that preceded the behavior (or a similar one). Conversely, if the behavior is followed by something undesirable (a [[Punishment (psychology)|punisher]]), the behavior is less likely to occur in the presence of the stimulus. In a similar manner, the removal of a stimulus directly following the behavior might either increase or decrease the frequency of that behavior in the future (negative reinforcement or punishment).<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> For instance, a student that gained praise and a good grade after turning in a paper, might seem more motivated in writing papers in the future ([[positive reinforcement]]); if the same student put in a lot of work on a task without getting any praise for it, he or she might seem less motivated to do school work in the future ([[negative punishment]]). If a student starts to cause trouble in the class gets punished with something he or she dislikes, such as detention ([[positive punishment]]), that behavior would decrease in the future. The student might seem more motivated to behave in class, presumably in order to avoid further detention ([[negative reinforcement]]).

The strength of reinforcement or punishment is dependent on [[Schedules of reinforcement|schedule]] and timing. A reinforcer or punisher affects the future frequency of a behavior most strongly if it occurs within seconds of the behavior. A behavior that is reinforced intermittently, at unpredictable intervals, will be more robust and persistent, compared to the ones that are reinforced every time the behavior is performed.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> For example, if the misbehaving student in the above example was punished a week after the troublesome behavior, that might not affect future behavior.

In addition to these basic principles, [[Stimulus control|environmental stimuli also affect behavior]]. Behavior is punished or reinforced in the context of whatever stimuli were present just before the behavior was performed, which means that a particular behavior might not be affected in every environmental context, or situation, after it is punished or reinforced in one specific context.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> A lack of praise for school-related behavior might, for instance, not decrease after-school sports-related behavior that is usually reinforced by praise.

The various mechanisms of operant conditioning may be used to understand the motivation for various behaviors by examining what happens just after the behavior (the consequence), in what context the behavior is performed or not performed (the antecedent), and under what circumstances (motivating operators).<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

====Incentive motivation====
{{hatnote|Main section: {{sectionlink|Motivational salience|Incentive salience}}}}
Incentive theory is a specific theory of motivation, derived partly from behaviorist principles of reinforcement, which concerns an incentive or motive to do something. The most common incentive would be a compensation. Compensation can be tangible or intangible. It helps in motivating the employees in their corporate life, students in academics, and inspire them to do more and more to achieve profitability in every field. Studies show that if the person receives the [[reward system|reward]] immediately, the effect is greater, and decreases as delay lengthens.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}} Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action to become a habit{{citation needed|date=November 2019}}

"Reinforcers and reinforcement principles of behavior differ from the hypothetical construct of reward." A reinforcer is anything that follows an action, with the intention that the action will now occur more frequently. From this perspective, the concept of distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic forces is irrelevant.

Incentive theory in psychology treats motivation and behavior of the individual as they are influenced by beliefs, such as engaging in activities that are expected to be profitable. Incentive theory is promoted by behavioral psychologists, such as B.F. Skinner. Incentive theory is especially supported by Skinner in his philosophy of Radical behaviorism, meaning that a person's actions always have social ramifications: and if actions are positively received, people are more likely to act in this manner, or if negatively received people are less likely to act in this manner.

Incentive theory distinguishes itself from other motivation theories, such as drive theory, in the direction of the motivation. In incentive theory, stimuli "attract" a person towards them, and push them towards the stimulus. In terms of behaviorism, incentive theory involves positive reinforcement: the reinforcing stimulus has been conditioned to make the person happier. As opposed to in drive theory, which involves negative reinforcement: a stimulus has been associated with the removal of the punishment—the lack of homeostasis in the body. For example, a person has come to know that if they eat when hungry, it will eliminate that negative feeling of hunger, or if they drink when thirsty, it will eliminate that negative feeling of thirst.<ref>{{Cite web|title=APA PsycNet|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1982-31908-001|website=psycnet.apa.org|language=en|access-date=2020-05-15}}</ref>

===Motivating operations===
[[Motivating operation]]s, MOs, relate to the field of motivation in that they help improve understanding aspects of behavior that are not covered by operant conditioning. In operant conditioning, the function of the reinforcer is to influence ''future behavior''. The presence of a stimulus believed to function as a reinforcer does not according to this terminology explain the current behavior of an organism – only previous instances of reinforcement of that behavior (in the same or similar situations) do. Through the behavior-altering effect of MOs, it is possible to affect the current behavior of an individual, giving another piece of the puzzle of motivation.

Motivating operations are factors that affect learned behavior in a certain context. MOs have two effects: a '''value-altering effect''', which increases or decreases the efficiency of a reinforcer, and a '''behavior-altering effect''', which modifies learned behavior that has previously been punished or reinforced by a particular stimulus.<ref name=":0" />

When a motivating operation causes an increase in the effectiveness of a reinforcer or amplifies a learned behavior in some way (such as increasing frequency, intensity, duration, or speed of the behavior), it functions as an '''establishing operation, EO'''. A common example of this would be food deprivation, which functions as an EO in relation to food: the food-deprived organism will perform behaviors previously related to the acquisition of food more intensely, frequently, longer, or faster in the presence of food, and those behaviors would be especially strongly reinforced.<ref name=":0" /> For instance, a fast-food worker earning minimal wage, forced to work more than one job to make ends meet, would be highly motivated by a pay raise, because of the current deprivation of money (a conditioned establishing operation). The worker would work hard to try to achieve the raise, and getting the raise would function as an especially strong reinforcer of work behavior.

Conversely, a motivating operation that causes a decrease in the effectiveness of a reinforcer, or diminishes a learned behavior related to the reinforcer, functions as an '''abolishing operation, AO.''' Again using the example of food, satiation of food prior to the presentation of a food stimulus would produce a decrease on food-related behaviors, and diminish or completely abolish the reinforcing effect of acquiring and ingesting the food.<ref name=":0" /> Consider the board of a large investment bank, concerned with a too small profit margin, deciding to give the CEO a new incentive package in order to motivate him to increase firm profits. If the CEO already has a lot of money, the incentive package might not be a very good way to motivate him, because he would be satiated on the money. Getting even more money would not be a strong reinforcer for profit-increasing behavior, and would not elicit increased intensity, frequency, or duration of profit-increasing behavior.

===Motivation and psychotherapy===
{{See also|Motivational interviewing}}
Motivation lies at the core of many behaviorist approaches to psychological treatment. A person with [[Autism spectrum|autism-spectrum]] the disorder is seen as lacking motivation to perform socially relevant behaviors – social stimuli are not as reinforcing for people with autism compared to other people. [[Major depressive disorder|Depression]] is understood as a lack of reinforcement (especially positive reinforcement) leading to the extinction of behavior in the depressed individual. A patient with [[specific phobia]] is not motivated to seek out the phobic stimulus because it acts as a punisher, and is over-motivated to avoid it (negative reinforcement). In accordance, therapies have been designed to address these problems, such as [[Early intensive behavior intervention|EIBI]] and [[Cognitive behavioral therapy|CBT]] for major depression and specific phobia.