Editing Fuel cell (section)

==Applications==
[[File:U Boot 212 HDW 1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Type 212 submarine]] with fuel cell propulsion. This example in dry dock is operated by the [[German Navy]].]]

===Power===
{{See also|Hydrogen fuel cell power plant}}
Stationary fuel cells are used for commercial, industrial and residential primary and backup power generation. Fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations, such as spacecraft, remote weather stations, large parks, communications centers, rural locations including research stations, and in certain military applications. A fuel cell system running on hydrogen can be compact and lightweight, and have no major moving parts. Because fuel cells have no moving parts and do not involve combustion, in ideal conditions they can achieve up to 99.9999% reliability.<ref name="Fuel Cell Basics Benefits">{{cite web|title=Fuel Cell Basics: Benefits |publisher=Fuel Cells 2000 |url=http://www.fuelcells.org/basics/benefits.html |access-date=2007-05-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928225430/http://www.fuelcells.org/basics/benefits.html |archive-date=28 September 2007 }}</ref> This equates to less than one minute of downtime in a six-year period.<ref name="Fuel Cell Basics Benefits"/>

Since fuel cell electrolyzer systems do not store fuel in themselves, but rather rely on external storage units, they can be successfully applied in large-scale energy storage, rural areas being one example.<ref name="fuelcells.org">[http://www.fuelcells.org/basics/apps.html "Fuel Cell Basics: Applications"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515080800/http://www.fuelcells.org/basics/apps.html |date=15 May 2011 }}. Fuel Cells 2000. Accessed 2 August 2011.</ref> There are many different types of stationary fuel cells so efficiencies vary, but most are between 40% and 60% energy efficient.<ref name=Types1/> However, when the fuel cell's waste heat is used to heat a building in a cogeneration system this efficiency can increase to 85%.<ref name=Types1/> This is significantly more efficient than traditional coal power plants, which are only about one third energy efficient.<ref>[https://www.energy.gov/energysources/electricpower.htm "Energy Sources: Electric Power"]. U.S. Department of Energy. Accessed 2 August 2011.</ref> Assuming production at scale, fuel cells could save 20–40% on energy costs when used in cogeneration systems.<ref>[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/48219.pdf "2008 Fuel Cell Technologies Market Report"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120904104908/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/48219.pdf |date=4 September 2012 }}. Bill Vincent of the Breakthrough Technologies Institute, Jennifer Gangi, Sandra Curtin, and Elizabeth Delmont. Department of Energy Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. June 2010.</ref> Fuel cells are also much cleaner than traditional power generation; a fuel cell power plant using natural gas as a hydrogen source would create less than one ounce of pollution (other than {{CO2}}) for every 1,000&nbsp;kW·h produced, compared to 25 pounds of pollutants generated by conventional combustion systems.<ref>U.S. Fuel Cell Council Industry Overview 2010, p. 12. U.S. Fuel Cell Council. 2010.</ref> Fuel Cells also produce 97% less nitrogen oxide emissions than conventional coal-fired power plants.

One such pilot program is operating on [[Stuart Island (Washington)|Stuart Island]] in Washington State. There the Stuart Island Energy Initiative<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.siei.org/ |title=Stuart Island Energy Initiative |publisher=Siei.org |access-date=2009-09-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618081052/http://siei.org/ |archive-date=18 June 2013 |url-status=dead }} – gives extensive technical details</ref> has built a complete, closed-loop system: Solar panels power an electrolyzer, which makes hydrogen. The hydrogen is stored in a {{convert|500|U.S.gal|L|adj=on}} tank at {{convert|200|psi}}, and runs a ReliOn fuel cell to provide full electric back-up to the off-the-grid residence. Another closed system loop was unveiled in late 2011 in Hempstead, NY.<ref>{{cite web|title=Town's Answer to Clean Energy is Blowin' in the Wind: New Wind Turbine Powers Hydrogen Car Fuel Station |url=http://townofhempstead.org/news/564-towns-answer-to-clean-energy-is-blowin-in-the-wind-new-wind-turbine-powers-hydrogen-car-fuel-station |publisher=Town of Hempstead |access-date=13 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120128114634/http://townofhempstead.org/news/564-towns-answer-to-clean-energy-is-blowin-in-the-wind-new-wind-turbine-powers-hydrogen-car-fuel-station |archive-date=28 January 2012}}</ref>

Fuel cells can be used with low-quality gas from landfills or waste-water treatment plants to generate power and lower [[methane emissions]]. A 2.8 MW fuel cell plant in California is said to be the largest of the type.<ref>[http://www.onlinetes.com/fuel-cell-energy-power-101612.aspx World's Largest Carbon Neutral Fuel Cell Power Plant] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528160634/http://www.onlinetes.com/fuel-cell-energy-power-101612.aspx |date=28 May 2013 }}, 16 October 2012</ref> Small-scale (sub-5kWhr) fuel cells are being developed for use in residential off-grid deployment.<ref>[https://www.upstartpower.com/2020/12/investment-residential-fuel-cell/ Upstart Power Announces Investment for Residential Fuel Cell Technology from Clean Tech Leaders] {{Webarchive| url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122122351/https://www.upstartpower.com/2020/12/investment-residential-fuel-cell/ |date=22 January 2021 }}, 16 December 2020</ref>

===Cogeneration===
{{See also|Combined cycle hydrogen power plant}}
Combined heat and power (CHP) fuel cell systems, including [[micro combined heat and power]] (MicroCHP) systems are used to generate both electricity and heat for homes (see [[home fuel cell]]), office building and factories. The system generates constant electric power (selling excess power back to the grid when it is not consumed), and at the same time produces hot air and water from the [[waste heat]]. As the result CHP systems have the potential to save primary energy as they can make use of waste heat which is generally rejected by thermal energy conversion systems.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalccsinstitute.com/publications/reduction-residential-carbon-dioxide-emissions-through-use-small-cogeneration-fuel-ce-7|title=Reduction of residential carbon dioxide emissions through the use of small cogeneration fuel cell systems – Combined heat and power systems|publisher=IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme (IEAGHG)|date=11 November 2008|access-date=2013-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203185449/http://www.globalccsinstitute.com/publications/reduction-residential-carbon-dioxide-emissions-through-use-small-cogeneration-fuel-ce-7|archive-date=3 December 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> A typical capacity range of [[home fuel cell]] is 1–3&nbsp;kW<sub>el</sub>, 4–8&nbsp;kW<sub>th</sub>.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalccsinstitute.com/publications/reduction-residential-carbon-dioxide-emissions-through-use-small-cogeneration-fuel-c-20|title=Reduction of residential carbon dioxide emissions through the use of small cogeneration fuel cell systems – Scenario calculations|publisher=IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme (IEAGHG)|date=11 November 2008|access-date=2013-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131026035842/http://www.globalccsinstitute.com/publications/reduction-residential-carbon-dioxide-emissions-through-use-small-cogeneration-fuel-c-20|archive-date=26 October 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cogen.org/|title=cogen.org – body shop in nassau county}}</ref> CHP systems linked to [[absorption chiller]]s use their waste heat for [[refrigeration]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fchea.org/core/import/PDFs/CHP%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120518094954/http://www.fchea.org/core/import/PDFs/CHP%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Fuel Cells and CHP|archive-date=18 May 2012}}</ref>

The waste heat from fuel cells can be diverted during the summer directly into the ground providing further cooling while the waste heat during winter can be pumped directly into the building. The University of Minnesota owns the patent rights to this type of system.<ref>{{cite web|title=Patent 7,334,406|url=http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsearch-bool.html&r=2&f=G&l=50&co1=AND&d=PTXT&s1=7,334,406&OS=7,334,406&RS=7,334,406|access-date=25 August 2011|archive-date=24 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224203754/http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsearch-bool.html&r=2&f=G&l=50&co1=AND&d=PTXT&s1=7,334,406&OS=7,334,406&RS=7,334,406|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Geothermal Heat, Hybrid Energy Storage System|url=http://www.license.umn.edu/Products/Hybrid-Geothermal-and-Fuel-Cell-System__Z04147.aspx|access-date=25 August 2011|archive-date=5 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305232421/http://www.license.umn.edu/Products/Hybrid-Geothermal-and-Fuel-Cell-System__Z04147.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Co-generation systems can reach 85% efficiency (40–60% electric and the remainder as thermal).<ref name=Types1/> Phosphoric-acid fuel cells (PAFC) comprise the largest segment of existing CHP products worldwide and can provide combined efficiencies close to 90%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalccsinstitute.com/publications/reduction-residential-carbon-dioxide-emissions-through-use-small-cogeneration-fuel-c-12#tbl_4-7|title=Reduction of residential carbon dioxide emissions through the use of small cogeneration fuel cell systems – Commercial sector|publisher=IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme (IEAGHG)|date=11 November 2008|access-date=2013-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180305202609/http://www.globalccsinstitute.com/publications/reduction-residential-carbon-dioxide-emissions-through-use-small-cogeneration-fuel-c-12#tbl_4-7|archive-date=5 March 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>[http://www.utcpower.com/products/purecell400 "PureCell Model 400: Overview"]  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514111455/http://www.utcpower.com/products/purecell400 |date=14 May 2011 }}. UTC Power. Accessed 2 August 2011.</ref> Molten carbonate (MCFC) and solid-oxide fuel cells (SOFC) are also used for combined heat and power generation and have electrical energy efficiencies around 60%.<ref>[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells/pdfs/fc_comparison_chart.pdf "Comparison of Fuel Cell Technologies"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130301120203/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells/pdfs/fc_comparison_chart.pdf |date=1 March 2013 }}. Department of Energy Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Fuel Cell Technologies Program. February 2011.</ref> Disadvantages of co-generation systems include slow ramping up and down rates, high cost and short lifetime.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Onovwiona | first1 = H.I. | last2 = Ugursal | first2 = V.I. | year = 2006 | title = Residential cogeneration systems: review of the current technology | journal = Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews | volume = 10 | issue = 5| pages = 389–431 | doi=10.1016/j.rser.2004.07.005| bibcode = 2006RSERv..10..389O }}</ref><ref>AD. Hawkes, L. Exarchakos, D. Hart, MA. Leach, D. Haeseldonckx, L. Cosijns and W. D’haeseleer. EUSUSTEL work package 3: Fuell cells, 2006.</ref> Also their need to have a hot water storage tank to smooth out the thermal heat production was a serious disadvantage in the domestic market place where space in domestic properties is at a great premium.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalccsinstitute.com/publications/reduction-residential-carbon-dioxide-emissions-through-use-small-cogeneration-fuel-c-31#Expert_Reviewers_Comments|title=Reduction of residential carbon dioxide emissions through the use of small cogeneration fuel cell systems|publisher=IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme (IEAGHG)|date=11 November 2008|access-date=2013-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180504050857/http://www.globalccsinstitute.com/publications/reduction-residential-carbon-dioxide-emissions-through-use-small-cogeneration-fuel-c-31#Expert_Reviewers_Comments|archive-date=4 May 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Delta-ee consultants stated in 2013 that with 64% of global sales the fuel cell micro-combined heat and power passed the conventional systems in sales in 2012.<ref name="The fuel cell industry review 2013"/> The Japanese ENE FARM project stated that 34.213 PEMFC and 2.224 SOFC were installed in the period 2012–2014, 30,000 units on [[LNG]] and 6,000 on [[liquefied petroleum gas|LPG]].<ref name="CalluxEn1">{{cite web|url=http://www.hyer.eu/2014/enfarm-enefield-eneware |title=HyER " Enfarm, enefield, eneware! |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160215204028/http://www.hyer.eu/2014/enfarm-enefield-eneware |archive-date=15 February 2016 }}</ref>

===Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs)===
{{main|Fuel cell vehicle|Hydrogen vehicle|List of fuel cell vehicles|hydrogen fuel cell train}}
[[File:Fuelcell.jpg|thumb|Configuration of components in a fuel cell car]]
[[File:Toyota mirai trimmed.jpg|thumb|[[Toyota Mirai]]]]
[[File:Tech.jpg|thumb|[[Element One]] fuel cell vehicle]]

====Automobiles====
Four [[fuel cell vehicle|fuel cell electric vehicle]]s have been introduced for commercial lease and sale: the [[Honda Clarity]], [[Toyota Mirai]], [[Hyundai ix35 FCEV]], and the [[Hyundai Nexo]]. By year-end 2019, about 18,000 FCEVs had been leased or sold worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-07-17|title=Hydrogen Fuel Cell - Designs, reactions, FCEV, Pros and Cons|url=https://bauaelectric.com/fuel-cell/hydrogen-fuel-cell-design-reaction-pros-and-cons/|access-date=2021-07-18|website=Bauaelectric|archive-date=18 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718193713/https://bauaelectric.com/fuel-cell/hydrogen-fuel-cell-design-reaction-pros-and-cons/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-market-for-hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-forecasts-for-major-world-regions-to-2032-301063614.html/|title=Global Market for Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles: Forecasts for Major World Regions To 2032|date=2020-05-21}}</ref> Fuel cell electric vehicles feature an average range of {{cvt|314|mi|km|order=flip}} between refuelings<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cecsb.org/fcev/|title=Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles|work=Community Environmental Council|access-date=2018-03-26|archive-date=27 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180327084403/http://www.cecsb.org/fcev/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and can be refueled in about 5 minutes.<ref>Wipke, Keith, Sam Sprik, Jennifer Kurtz and Todd Ramsden. [http://www.nrel.gov/hydrogen/pdfs/51564.pdf "National FCEV Learning Demonstration"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019173103/http://www.nrel.gov/hydrogen/pdfs/51564.pdf |date=19 October 2011}}. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, April 2011, accessed 2 August 2011</ref> The U.S. Department of Energy's Fuel Cell Technology Program states that, as of 2011, fuel cells achieved 53–59% efficiency at one-quarter power and 42–53% vehicle efficiency at full power,<ref name=progressreport>Garbak, John. [http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/progress10/viii_0_technology_validation_overview.pdf "VIII.0 Technology Validation Sub-Program Overview"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032047/http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/progress10/viii_0_technology_validation_overview.pdf |date=24 September 2015 }}. DOE Fuel Cell Technologies Program, FY 2010 Annual Progress Report, accessed 2 August 2011</ref> and a durability of over {{convert|75000|miles|sigfig=2|abbr=on|order=flip}} with less than 10% degradation.<ref name=Accomplishments>[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/accomplishments.html "Accomplishments and Progress"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110821050300/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/accomplishments.html |date=21 August 2011}}. Fuel Cell Technology Program, U.S. Dept. of Energy, 24 June 2011</ref> In a 2017 Well-to-Wheels simulation analysis that "did not address the economics and market constraints", General Motors and its partners estimated that, for an equivalent journey, a fuel cell electric vehicle running on compressed gaseous hydrogen produced from natural gas could use about 40% less energy and emit 45% less greenhouse gasses than an internal combustion vehicle.<ref name=Lathia>{{Cite journal|last1=Lathia|first1=Rutvik Vasudev|last2=Dobariya|first2=Kevin S.|last3=Patel|first3=Ankit|title=Hydrogen Fuel Cells for Road Vehicles|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=141|date=10 January 2017|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.09.150|page=462|bibcode=2017JCPro.141..462L }}</ref>

In 2015, Toyota introduced its first fuel cell vehicle, the Mirai, at a price of $57,000.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://driving.ca/toyota/mirai | title=Mirai – New and Used Car Reviews, Comparisons and News}}</ref> Hyundai introduced the limited production [[Hyundai ix35 FCEV]] under a lease agreement.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.autoblog.com/2012/09/27/hyundai-ix35-fuel-cell-paris-2012/ |title=Hyundai ix35 lays claim to world's first production fuel cell vehicle title |work=autoblog.com |first=Jeremy |last=Korzeniewski |date=27 September 2012 |access-date=2012-10-07}}</ref> In 2016, Honda started leasing the Honda Clarity Fuel Cell.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://blog.caranddriver.com/hydro-dip-2017-honda-clarity-fuel-cell-leases-cheaper-than-initially-expected/|title=Hydro Dip: 2017 Honda Clarity Fuel-Cell Leases Cheaper Than Initially Expected|access-date=2018-03-26|archive-date=27 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180327023719/https://blog.caranddriver.com/hydro-dip-2017-honda-clarity-fuel-cell-leases-cheaper-than-initially-expected/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2018, Hyundai introduced the [[Hyundai Nexo]], replacing the [[Hyundai ix35 FCEV]]. In 2020, Toyota introduced the second generation of its Mirai brand, improving [[fuel efficiency]] and expanding range compared to the original Sedan 2014 model.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.h2bulletin.com/toyota-launches-second-generation-mirai-hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicle/|title=Toyota launches second generation Mirai hydrogen fuel cell vehicle|access-date=2020-12-21}}</ref>

In 2024, Mirai owners filed a [[class action]] lawsuit against Toyota in California over the lack of availability of hydrogen for fuel cell electric cars, alleging, among other things, fraudulent concealment and misrepresentation as well as violations of California's false advertising law and breaches of implied warranty.<ref name=Martin2024>Martin, Polly. [https://www.hydrogeninsight.com/transport/toyota-sued-over-lack-of-hydrogen-availability-for-fuel-cell-cars-in-california/2-1-1676965 "Toyota sued over lack of hydrogen availability for fuel cell cars in California"], ''Hydrogen Insight'', July 15, 2024</ref> The same year, Hyundai recalled all 1,600 Nexo vehicles sold in the US to that time due to a risk of fuel leaks and fire from a faulty "pressure relief device".<ref name=Nexo2024>[https://www.boston.com/news/business/2024/10/18/hyundai-recalls-hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-due-to-fire-risk-and-tells-owners-to-park-them-outdoors "Hyundai recalls hydrogen fuel cell vehicles due to fire risk and tells owners to park them outdoors"], Associated Press, via Boston.com, October 18, 2024</ref>

=====Criticism=====
Some commentators believe that hydrogen fuel cell cars will never become economically competitive with other technologies<ref name=Romm2014/><ref name=TechRev>{{cite web|url=https://www.technologyreview.com/2007/03/01/226486/hell-and-hydrogen |title=Hell and Hydrogen|date=March 2007 |publisher=Technologyreview.com |access-date=2011-01-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.slashgear.com/833231/heres-why-hydrogen-cars-were-doomed-to-fail |title=Here's Why Hydrogen Cars Were Doomed to Fail |last1=Fernandez |first1=Ray |date=April 14, 2022 |website=SlashGear |access-date=April 16, 2022}}</ref> or that it will take decades for them to become profitable.<ref name=Meyers1/><ref name=Lux2013/> Elon Musk, CEO of battery-electric vehicle maker [[Tesla Motors]], stated in 2015 that fuel cells for use in cars will never be commercially viable because of the inefficiency of producing, transporting and storing hydrogen and the flammability of the gas, among other reasons.<ref name=Musk1>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y_e7rA4fBAo "Elon Musk on why Hydrogen fuel cell is dumb (2015)"], YouTube, 14 January 2015, at 10:20 of the clip</ref> In 2012, Lux Research, Inc. issued a report that stated: "The dream of a hydrogen economy ... is no nearer". It concluded that "Capital cost ... will limit adoption to a mere 5.9 GW" by 2030, providing "a nearly insurmountable barrier to adoption, except in niche applications". The analysis concluded that, by 2030, PEM stationary market will reach $1 billion, while the vehicle market, including forklifts, will reach a total of $2 billion.<ref name=Lux2013>Brian Warshay, Brian. [http://www.luxresearchinc.com/news-and-events/press-releases/143.html "The Great Compression: the Future of the Hydrogen Economy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130315140923/http://www.luxresearchinc.com/news-and-events/press-releases/143.html |date=15 March 2013 }}, Lux Research, Inc. January 2013</ref> Other analyses cite the lack of an extensive [[hydrogen infrastructure]] in the U.S. as an ongoing challenge to Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle commercialization.<ref name=RSC/>

In 2014, [[Joseph Romm]], the author of ''[[The Hype About Hydrogen]]'' (2005), said that FCVs still had not overcome the high fueling cost, lack of fuel-delivery infrastructure, and pollution caused by producing hydrogen. "It would take several miracles to overcome all of those problems simultaneously in the coming decades."<ref>Romm, Joseph. [http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/08/13/3467289/tesla-toyota-hydrogen-car/ "Tesla Trumps Toyota Part II: The Big Problem With Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles"], CleanProgress.com, 13 August 2014</ref> He concluded that renewable energy cannot economically be used to make hydrogen for an FCV fleet "either now or in the future."<ref name=Romm2014>Romm, Joseph. [http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/08/05/3467115/tesla-toyota-hydrogen-cars-batteries/ "Tesla Trumps Toyota: Why Hydrogen Cars Can’t Compete With Pure Electric Cars"], CleanProgress.com, 5 August 2014</ref> [[Greentech Media]]'s analyst reached similar conclusions in 2014.<ref>Hunt, Tam. [http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/should-california-reconsider-its-policy-support-for-fuel-cell-vehicles "Should California Reconsider Its Policy Support for Fuel-Cell Vehicles?"], GreenTech Media, 10 July 2014</ref> In 2015, ''[[CleanTechnica]]'' listed some of the disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.<ref>Brown, Nicholas. [http://cleantechnica.com/2015/06/26/hydrogen-cars-lost-much-support/ "Hydrogen Cars Lost Much of Their Support, But Why?"], ''Clean Technica'', 26 June 2015</ref> So did ''Car Throttle''.<ref>[https://www.carthrottle.com/post/engineering-explained-5-reasons-why-hydrogen-cars-are-stupid/ "Engineering Explained: 5 Reasons Why Hydrogen Cars Are Stupid"], ''Car Throttle'', 8 October 2015</ref> A 2019 video by ''Real Engineering'' noted that, notwithstanding the introduction of vehicles that run on hydrogen, using hydrogen as a fuel for cars does not help to reduce carbon emissions from transportation. The 95% of hydrogen still produced from fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide, and producing hydrogen from water is an energy-consuming process. Storing hydrogen requires more energy either to cool it down to the liquid state or to put it into tanks under high pressure, and delivering the hydrogen to fueling stations requires more energy and may release more carbon. The hydrogen needed to move a FCV a kilometer costs approximately 8 times as much as the electricity needed to move a BEV the same distance.<ref>Ruffo, Gustavo Henrique. [https://insideevs.com/features/373145/video-compares-bev-fcevs-energy-efficient "This Video Compares BEVs to FCEVs and the More Efficient Is..."], InsideEVs.com, 29 September 2019</ref>

A 2020 assessment concluded that hydrogen vehicles are still only 38% efficient, while battery EVs are 80% efficient.<ref>Baxter, Tom. [https://uk.news.yahoo.com/hydrogen-cars-wont-overtake-electric-111749065.html "Hydrogen cars won't overtake electric vehicles because they're hampered by the laws of science"], ''The Conversation'', 3 June 2020</ref> In 2021 ''[[CleanTechnica]]'' concluded that (a) hydrogen cars remain far less efficient than electric cars; (b) [[grey hydrogen]] – hydrogen produced with polluting processes – makes up the vast majority of available hydrogen; (c) delivering hydrogen would require building a vast and expensive new delivery and refueling infrastructure; and (d) the remaining two "advantages of fuel cell vehicles – longer range and fast fueling times – are rapidly being eroded by improving battery and charging technology."<ref>Morris, Charles. [https://cleantechnica.com/2021/10/14/why-are-3-automakers-still-hyping-hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles "Why Are 3 Automakers Still Hyping Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles?"], CleanTechnica, October 14, 2021</ref> A 2022 study in ''[[Nature Electronics]]'' agreed.<ref>Plötz, Patrick. [https://doi.org/10.1038/s41928-021-00706-6 "Hydrogen technology is unlikely to play a major role in sustainable road transport"], ''[[Nature Electronics]]'', vol. 5, pp. 8–10, January 31, 2022</ref> A 2023 study by the [[Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research]] (CICERO) estimated that leaked hydrogen has a global warming effect 11.6 times stronger than CO₂.<ref name=CICERO>Bjørnæs, Christian. [https://cicero.oslo.no/en/hydrogen-leaks-add-to-global-warming "Global warming potential of hydrogen estimated"], [[Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research]], June 7, 2023. Retrieved June 15, 2023</ref>

====Buses====
[[File:TOYOTA FCHV Bus.jpg|thumb|right|[[Toyota FCHV-BUS]] at the [[Expo 2005]] ]]
{{as of|2011|08}}, there were about 100 [[fuel cell bus]]es in service around the world.<ref name="calstart.org">[http://www.calstart.org/projects/low-carbon-bus-program/National-Fuel-Cell-Bus-Program/National-Fuel-Cell-Bus-Program-Awards.aspx "National Fuel Cell Bus Program Awards"]. Calstart. Accessed 12 August 2011 {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121031124915/http://www.calstart.org/projects/low-carbon-bus-program/National-Fuel-Cell-Bus-Program/National-Fuel-Cell-Bus-Program-Awards.aspx|date=31 October 2012}}</ref> Most of these were manufactured by [[UTC Power]], Toyota, Ballard, [[Hydrogenics]], and Proton Motor. UTC buses had driven more than {{convert|600000|miles|km|sigfig=2|abbr=on|order=flip}} by 2011.<ref>[http://www.utcpower.com/products/transportation/fleet-vehicles "Transportation Fleet Vehicles: Overview"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111017062215/http://www.utcpower.com/products/transportation/fleet-vehicles |date=17 October 2011 }}. UTC Power. Accessed 2 August 2011.</ref> Fuel cell buses have from 39% to 141% higher fuel economy than diesel buses and natural gas buses.<ref name=Lathia/><ref>[http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/progress10/viii_0_technology_validation_overview.pdf "FY 2010 annual progress report: VIII.0 Technology Validation Sub-Program Overview"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032047/http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/progress10/viii_0_technology_validation_overview.pdf |date=24 September 2015 }}, John Garbak. Department of Energy Hydrogen Program.</ref>

{{As of|2019}}, [[National Renewable Energy Laboratory|the NREL]] was evaluating several current and planned fuel cell bus projects in the U.S.<ref>[https://www.nrel.gov/hydrogen/fuel-cell-bus-evaluation.html "Fuel Cell Electric Bus Evaluations"], U.S. Dept. of Energy, accessed 10 September 2019</ref>

====Trains====
Train operators may use hydrogen fuel cells in trains in an effort to save the costs of installing overhead electrification and to maintain the range offered by diesel trains. They have encountered expenses, however, due to fuel cells in trains lasting only three years, maintenance of the hydrogen tank and the additional need for batteries as a power buffer.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hajek |first=Stefan |date=2023-08-17 |title=Wasserstoff- und Batterie-Züge: "Die Batterie setzt sich fast immer gegen den Wasserstoff durch |url=https://www.wiwo.de/unternehmen/dienstleister/wasserstoff-und-batterie-zuege-die-batterie-setzt-sich-fast-immer-gegen-den-wasserstoff-durch/29325672.html |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=www.wiwo.de |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Parkes |first=Rachel |date=2023-08-22 |title=Hydrogen will 'almost always' lose out to battery-electric in German rail transport: train manufacturer |url=https://www.hydrogeninsight.com/transport/hydrogen-will-almost-always-lose-out-to-battery-electric-in-german-rail-transport-train-manufacturer/2-1-1504868 |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=hydrogeninsight.com}}</ref> In 2018, the first fuel cell-powered trains, the [[Alstom Coradia Lint#iLint|Alstom Coradia iLint]] multiple units, began running on the Buxtehude–Bremervörde–Bremerhaven–Cuxhaven line in Germany.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fuel cell powered trains |url=https://www.alstom.com/solutions/rolling-stock/coradia-ilinttm-worlds-1st-hydrogen-powered-train |website=Alstom Coradia iLint}}</ref> Hydrogen trains have also been introduced in Sweden<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.alstom.com/press-releases-news/2021/8/alstoms-coradia-ilint-hydrogen-train-runs-first-time-sweden |title=Alstom's Coradia iLint hydrogen train runs for the first time in Sweden|website=Alstom.com}}</ref> and the UK.<ref>{{cite web |title=Hydrogen trains in U.K. |url=https://rail.ricardo.com/campaigns/routes-to-railway-decarbonisation/hydrogen-traction/hydrogen-fuel-cell-rollingstock |website=HydroFlex}}</ref>

====Trucks====
In December 2020, [[Toyota]] and [[Hino Motors]], together with [[7-Eleven|Seven-Eleven (Japan)]], [[FamilyMart]] and [[Lawson (store)|Lawson]] announced that they have agreed to jointly consider introducing light-duty fuel cell electric trucks (light-duty FCETs).<ref>{{cite news|date=8 December 2020 |title=Toyota and Hino Launch Initiative with Seven-Eleven, FamilyMart, and Lawson to Introduce Light-Duty Fuel Cell Electric Trucks  |url=https://global.toyota/en/newsroom/corporate/34161251.html |work=[[Toyota]] |access-date=25 November 2021}}</ref> Lawson started testing for low temperature delivery at the end of July 2021 in Tokyo, using a [[Hino Dutro]] in which the [[Toyota Mirai]] fuel cell is implemented. FamilyMart started testing in [[Okazaki, Aichi|Okazaki city]].<ref>{{cite news|date=11 August 2021 |title=ローソンとファミマが燃料電池トラック導入、トヨタいすゞ日野が車両開発 |trans-title=Lawson and FamilyMart introduced fuell cell trucks developed by Toyota and Hino |url=https://monoist.itmedia.co.jp/mn/articles/2108/11/news043.html |work=IT media, Japan |access-date=25 November 2021}}</ref>

In August 2021, Toyota announced their plan to make fuel cell modules at its Kentucky auto-assembly plant for use in zero-emission big rigs and heavy-duty commercial vehicles. They plan to begin assembling the electrochemical devices in 2023.<ref>{{cite news|date=25 August 2021 |title=Toyota to Make Fuel Cell Modules for Hydrogen Big Rigs At Kentucky Plant |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/alanohnsman/2021/08/25/toyota-to-make-fuel-cell-modules-at-kentucky-plant-for-hydrogen-big-rigs/?sh=72ef4804e54d |work=[[Forbes]] |access-date=25 November 2021}}</ref>

In October 2021, [[Daimler Truck]]'s fuel cell based truck received approval from German authorities for use on public roads.<ref name="DaimlerTruck">{{cite press release |url=https://media.daimlertruck.com/marsMediaSite/ko/en/51714040 |title=Daimler Truck's hydrogen-based fuel-cell truck receives license for road use |publisher=[[Daimler Truck]] |date=25 October 2021 |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref>

====Forklifts====
A [[fuel cell forklift]] (also called a fuel cell lift truck) is a fuel cell-powered industrial [[forklift truck]] used to lift and transport materials. In 2013 there were over 4,000 fuel cell forklifts used in [[material handling]] in the US,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fuelcells.org/pdfs/FuelCellForkliftsGainGround.pdf|date=21 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130821025808/http://www.fuelcells.org/pdfs/FuelCellForkliftsGainGround.pdf|archive-date=21 August 2013|title=再生医療専門クリニック リペアセルクリニック 東京院}}</ref> of which 500 received funding from [[United States Department of Energy|DOE]] (2012).<ref>{{Cite web| url=http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/iea_hia_fctp_overview_oct12.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203000519/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/iea_hia_fctp_overview_oct12.pdf|url-status=dead |title=Fuel cell technologies program overview|archive-date=3 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web| url=http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/economic_impacts_of_arra_fc.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203004225/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/economic_impacts_of_arra_fc.pdf|url-status=dead |title=Economic Impact of Fuel Cell Deployment in Forklifts and for Backup Power under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act|archive-date=3 December 2013}}</ref>  As of 2024, approximately 50,000 hydrogen forklifts are in operation worldwide (the bulk of which are in the U.S.), as compared with 1.2 million battery electric forklifts that were purchased in 2021.<ref>Barnard, Michael. [https://cleantechnica.com/2024/01/02/on-hydrogen-forklifts-bitcoin-mining-and-green-fertilizer "On Hydrogen Forklifts, Bitcoin Mining and Green Fertilizer"], ''CleanTechnica'', January 2, 2024</ref>

Most companies in Europe and the US do not use petroleum-powered forklifts, as these vehicles work indoors where emissions must be controlled and instead use electric forklifts.<ref name=Report>[http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-and-chinese-forklift-industry-report-2014-2016-281752401.html "Global and Chinese Forklift Industry Report, 2014-2016"], Research and Markets, 6 November 2014</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/forklift_anl_esd.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217104928/http://www2.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/forklift_anl_esd.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Full Fuel-Cycle Comparison of Forklift Propulsion Systems|archive-date=17 February 2013}}</ref> Fuel cell-powered forklifts can be refueled in 3 minutes and they can be used in refrigerated warehouses, where their performance is not degraded by lower temperatures. The FC units are often designed as drop-in replacements.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.still.co.uk/fuel-cell-technology-uk.0.0.html|title=Fuel cell technology|access-date=24 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203104905/http://www.still.co.uk/fuel-cell-technology-uk.0.0.html|archive-date=3 December 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://graftechaet.com/getattachment/065811d2-720e-40c6-b236-0440c4d90d76/OFCC-Forklift-Case-Study.aspx|title=Creating Innovative Graphite Solutions for Over 125 Years|website=GrafTech International|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206072419/http://www.graftechaet.com/getattachment/065811d2-720e-40c6-b236-0440c4d90d76/OFCC-Forklift-Case-Study.aspx|archive-date=6 December 2010}}</ref>

====Motorcycles and bicycles====
In 2005, a British manufacturer of hydrogen-powered fuel cells, [[Intelligent Energy]] (IE), produced the first working hydrogen-run motorcycle called the [[ENV]] (Emission Neutral Vehicle). The motorcycle holds enough fuel to run for four hours, and to travel {{convert|100|miles|km|abbr=on|sigfig=2|order=flip}} in an urban area, at a top speed of {{convert|50|mph|km/h|0|abbr=on|order=flip}}.<ref>{{cite web | title = The ENV Bike | publisher = Intelligent Energy | url = http://www.envbike.com/ | access-date = 2007-05-27 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080306162946/http://www.envbike.com/ | archive-date = 6 March 2008 | url-status = dead}}</ref> In 2004 [[Honda]] developed a fuel cell motorcycle that utilized the Honda FC Stack.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Honda Develops Fuel Cell Scooter Equipped with Honda FC Stack |publisher=Honda Motor Co. |date=24 August 2004 |url=http://world.honda.com/news/2004/2040824_03.html |access-date=2007-05-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402035611/http://world.honda.com/news/2004/2040824_03.html |archive-date= 2 April 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Honda to offer fuel-cell motorcycle | last = Bryant | first = Eric | publisher = autoblog.com | date = 21 July 2005 | url = http://hybrids.autoblog.com/2005/07/21/honda-to-offer-fuel-cell-motorcycle/ | access-date = 2007-05-27 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://archive.today/20120716185253/http://hybrids.autoblog.com/2005/07/21/honda-to-offer-fuel-cell-motorcycle/ | archive-date = 16 July 2012}}</ref>

Other examples of motorbikes<ref>{{cite web|author=15. Dezember 2007 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B_Whbb_hlPs | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/B_Whbb_hlPs| archive-date=2021-10-30|title=Hydrogen Fuel Cell electric bike | date=15 December 2007 |publisher=Youtube.com |access-date=2009-09-21}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and bicycles<ref>[http://www.horizonfuelcell.com/mobility.htm "Horizon fuel cell vehicles: Transportation: Light Mobility"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722005838/http://www.horizonfuelcell.com/mobility.htm |date=22 July 2011 }}. Horizon Fuel Cell Technologies. 2010. Accessed 2 August 2011.</ref> that use hydrogen fuel cells include the Taiwanese company APFCT's scooter<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.apfct.com/article_cat.php|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130101222331/http://www.apfct.com/article_cat.php?act=view&no=26|archive-date=1 January 2013 |url-status=dead|title=Asia Pacific Fuel Cell Technologies, Ltd. --fuel cell systems and fuel cell powered vehicles}}</ref> using the fueling system from Italy's Acta SpA<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/media/1713685/fct_review_2012.pdf| title = The fuel cell industry review 2012}}</ref> and the [[Suzuki]] Burgman scooter with an [[Intelligent Energy|IE]] fuel cell that received EU [[Motor vehicle type approval|Whole Vehicle Type Approval]] in 2011.<ref>[http://www.globalsuzuki.com/Burgman_Fuel-Cell_Scooter/index.html Burgman_Fuel-Cell_Scooter]; {{cite web|title=Products History 2000s |url=http://www.globalsuzuki.com/motorcycle/history/products/products_2000s.html |website=Global Suzuki |publisher=Suzuki Motor Corporation |access-date=25 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024231820/https://www.globalsuzuki.com/motorcycle/history/products/products_2000s.html |archive-date=24 October 2013}}</ref> Suzuki Motor Corp. and IE have announced a joint venture to accelerate the commercialization of zero-emission vehicles.<ref>{{cite news|title=Eco energy firm in Suzuki deal|url=http://www.leicestermercury.co.uk/Eco-energy-firm-Suzuki-deal/story-15165957-detail/story.html|access-date=26 October 2013|newspaper=Leicester Mercury|date=6 February 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029185618/http://www.leicestermercury.co.uk/Eco-energy-firm-Suzuki-deal/story-15165957-detail/story.html|archive-date=29 October 2013}}; {{cite news|title=Suzuki and IE to commercialize FC cars and bikes|url=http://www.gizmag.com/suzuki-ev-scooter/21380/|access-date=26 October 2013|newspaper=Gizmag|date=8 February 2012}}</ref>

====Airplanes====
In 2003, the world's first propeller-driven airplane to be powered entirely by a fuel cell was flown. The fuel cell was a stack design that allowed the fuel cell to be integrated with the plane's aerodynamic surfaces.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/industry/1287561.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100106235805/http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/industry/1287561.html|url-status=dead|title=First Fuel Cell Microaircraft|archive-date=6 January 2010}}</ref> Fuel cell-powered unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) include a [[Horizon Fuel Cell Technologies|Horizon]] fuel cell UAV that set the record distance flown for a small UAV in 2007.<ref>[http://www.horizonfuelcell.com/file/Pterosoardistancerecord.pdf "Horizon Fuel Cell Powers New World Record in UAV Flight"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111014121037/http://www.horizonfuelcell.com/file/Pterosoardistancerecord.pdf |date=14 October 2011 }}. Horizon Fuel Cell Technologies. 1 November 2007.</ref> [[Boeing]] researchers and industry partners throughout Europe conducted experimental flight tests in February 2008 of a manned airplane powered only by a fuel cell and lightweight batteries. The fuel cell demonstrator airplane, as it was called, used a proton-exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell/[[lithium-ion battery]] hybrid system to power an electric motor, which was coupled to a conventional propeller.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boeing.com/news/releases/2008/q2/080403a_nr.html |title=Boeing Successfully Flies Fuel Cell-Powered Airplane |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509091442/http://www.boeing.com/news/releases/2008/q2/080403a_nr.html |archive-date=9 May 2013 }}. Boeing. 3 April 2008. Accessed 2 August 2011.</ref>

In 2009, the Naval Research Laboratory's (NRL's) Ion Tiger utilized a hydrogen-powered fuel cell and flew for 23 hours and 17 minutes.<ref>[http://www.alternative-energy-news.info/fuel-cell-powered-uav-flight/ "Fuel Cell Powered UAV Completes 23-hour Flight"]. Alternative Energy: News. 22 October 2009. Accessed 2 August 2011.</ref> Fuel cells are also being tested and considered to provide auxiliary power in aircraft, replacing [[Auxiliary power unit|fossil fuel generators]] that were previously used to start the engines and power on board electrical needs, while reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite news| url=https://www.cnbc.com/2016/02/02/hydrogen-fuel-cells-on-a-plane.html|title=Hydrogen fuel cells… on a plane?|last=CNBC.com|first=Anmar Frangoul {{!}} Special to|date=2016-02-02|work=CNBC|access-date=2018-02-06}}</ref><ref name="theengineer.co.uk">[http://www.theengineer.co.uk/sectors/aerospace/news/hydrogen-powered-unmanned-aircraft-completes-set-of-tests/1009080.article "Hydrogen-powered unmanned aircraft completes set of tests"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015230121/http://www.theengineer.co.uk/sectors/aerospace/news/hydrogen-powered-unmanned-aircraft-completes-set-of-tests/1009080.article |date=15 October 2015 }}.www.theengineer.co.uk. 20 June 2011. Accessed 2 August 2011.</ref>{{Failed verification|date=February 2012}} In 2016 a Raptor E1 drone made a successful test flight using a fuel cell that was lighter than the [[lithium-ion battery]] it replaced. The flight lasted 10 minutes at an altitude of {{Convert|80|m}}, although the fuel cell reportedly had enough fuel to fly for two hours. The fuel was contained in approximately 100 solid {{Convert|1|cm2}} pellets composed of a proprietary chemical within an unpressurized cartridge. The pellets are physically robust and operate at temperatures as warm as {{Convert|50|C|F}}. The cell was from Arcola Energy.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Drone flight powered by lightweight hydrogen-producing pellets|url = http://www.gizmag.com/cella-energy-fuel-cell-drone/41718|website = www.gizmag.com|access-date = 2016-02-09|date = 2016-02-08|last = Coxworth|first = Ben}}</ref>

[[Lockheed Martin Skunk Works Stalker]] is an electric UAV powered by solid oxide fuel cell.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://defense-update.com/20110819_stalker-ex-mini-uav-set-for-eight-hour-endurance-missions-2.html|title=Stalker EX Mini-UAV Set for Eight Hour Endurance Missions|first=Tamir|last=Eshel|date=19 August 2011}}</ref>

====Boats====
[[File:Die Hydra in Leipzig I.jpg|thumb|Fuel cell boat ([[hydra (boat)|Hydra]]), in [[Leipzig]], Germany]]
The [[Hydra (boat)|Hydra]], a 22-person fuel cell boat operated from 1999 to 2001 on the [[Rhine]] river near [[Bonn]], Germany,<ref>[http://www.fuelcell.hu/fchu_engine/index.php/en/applications FC Applications]</ref> and was used as a ferry boat in [[Ghent]], Belgium, during an electric boat conference in 2000. It was fully certified by the [[Germanischer Lloyd]] for passenger transport.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.gl-group.com/infoServices/rules/pdfs/gl_vi-3-11_e.pdf |title=GL- Rules for classification and construction |access-date=27 November 2023 |archive-date=3 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203021725/http://www.gl-group.com/infoServices/rules/pdfs/gl_vi-3-11_e.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Zemship, a small passenger ship, was produced in 2003 to 2013. It used a 100&nbsp;kW [[Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell]]s (PEMFC) with 7 lead gel batteries. With these systems, alongside 12 storage tanks, fuel cells provided an energy capacity of 560&nbsp;V and 234&nbsp;kWh.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last1=Sürer |first1=Meryem Gizem |last2=Arat |first2=Hüseyin Turan |date=2022-05-26 |title=Advancements and current technologies on hydrogen fuel cell applications for marine vehicles |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360319921050552 |journal=International Journal of Hydrogen Energy |series=The Fifth International Hydrogen Technologies Congress |volume=47 |issue=45 |pages=19865–19875 |doi=10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.12.251 |bibcode=2022IJHE...4719865S |s2cid=246104205 |issn=0360-3199|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Made in [[Hamburg]], Germany, the FCS Alsterwasser, revealed in 2008, was one of the first passenger ships powered by fuel cells and could carry 100 passengers. The hybrid fuel cell technology that powered this ship was produced by Proton Motor Fuel Cell GmbH.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2008-10-01 |title=First fuel cell passenger ship unveiled in Hamburg |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464285908703729 |journal=Fuel Cells Bulletin |volume=2008 |issue=10 |pages=4–5 |doi=10.1016/S1464-2859(08)70372-9 |bibcode=2008FCBu.2008SV..4. |issn=1464-2859|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In 2010, the MF Vågen was first produced, utilizing 12&nbsp;kW fuel cells and 2- to 3-kilogram metal hydride hydrogen storage. It also utilizes 25&nbsp;kWh lithium batteries and a 10&nbsp;kW DC motor.<ref name=":02" />
The Hornblower Hybrid debuted in 2012. It utilizes a [[diesel generator]], batteries, [[photovoltaics]], [[wind power]], and fuel cells for energy.<ref name=":02" /> Made in [[Bristol]], a 12-passenger hybrid ferry, Hydrogenesis, has been in operation since 2012.<ref name=":02" /> The SF-BREEZE is a two-motor boat that utilizes 41 × 120&nbsp;kW fuel cells. With a type C storage tank, the pressurized vessel can maintain 1200&nbsp;kg of LH2. These ships are still in operation today.<ref name=":02" /> In Norway, the first ferry powered by fuel cells [[Hydrogen-powered ship|running on liquid hydrogen]] was scheduled for its first test drives in December 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|title=First Liquid Hydrogen Ferry equipped with Fuel Cells|url=https://ferrygogo.com/first-liquid-hydrogen-ferry-equipped-with-fuel-cells/ |date=28 November 2022 |access-date=28 November 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Fuel cells installed onboard the world's first liquid hydrogen-powered ferry |url=https://www.ballard.com/about-ballard/newsroom/market-updates/ballard-fuel-cells-installed-onboard-the-world-s-first-liquid-hydrogen-powered-ferry |date=18 November 2022 |access-date=28 November 2022 |archive-date=28 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128094146/https://www.ballard.com/about-ballard/newsroom/market-updates/ballard-fuel-cells-installed-onboard-the-world-s-first-liquid-hydrogen-powered-ferry |url-status=dead }}</ref><!-- WAS IT EVER PRODUCED? -->

The [[Type 212 submarine]]s of the German and Italian navies use fuel cells to remain submerged for weeks without the need to surface.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-10-01 |title=A Revolution in Submarine Propulsion |url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2020/october/revolution-submarine-propulsion#:~:text=The%20third%20AIP%20option%20is%20the%20fuel%20cell.,212%20class%20is%20equipped%20with%20a%20fuel%20cell. |access-date=2024-12-03 |website=U.S. Naval Institute |language=en}}</ref> The U212A is a non-nuclear submarine developed by German naval shipyard Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft.<ref>[http://articles.cnn.com/2011-02-22/tech/hybrid.submarine_1_submariners-aircraft-carrier-howaldtswerke-deutsche-werft?_s=PM:TECH "Super-stealth sub powered by fuel cell"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110804181646/http://articles.cnn.com/2011-02-22/tech/hybrid.submarine_1_submariners-aircraft-carrier-howaldtswerke-deutsche-werft?_s=PM%3ATECH |date= 4 August 2011 }}. Frederik Pleitgen. CNN Tech: Nuclear Weapons. 22 February 2011. Accessed 2 August 2011.</ref> The system consists of nine PEM fuel cells, providing between 30&nbsp;kW and 50&nbsp;kW each. The ship is silent, giving it an advantage in the detection of other submarines.<ref>[http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/type_212/, "U212 / U214 Attack Submarines, Germany"]. Naval-Technology.com. Accessed 2 August 2011. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121003154509/http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/type_212/ |date=3 October 2012 }}</ref>

===Portable power systems===
Portable fuel cell systems are generally classified as weighing under 10&nbsp;kg and providing power of less than 5&nbsp;kW.<ref name="sciencedirect.com">{{cite journal|last1=Agnolucci|first1=Paolo|title=Economics and market prospects of portable fuel cells|journal=International Journal of Hydrogen Energy|date=December 2007|volume=32|issue=17|pages=4319–4328|doi=10.1016/j.ijhydene.2007.03.042|bibcode=2007IJHE...32.4319A |s2cid=98471675 }}</ref> The potential market size for smaller fuel cells is quite large with an up to 40% per annum potential growth rate and a market size of around $10 billion, leading a great deal of research to be devoted to the development of portable power cells.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal|last1=Dyer|first1=C.K>|title=Fuel cells for portable applications|journal=Journal of Power Sources|date=April 2002|volume=106|issue=1–2|pages=31–34|bibcode=2002JPS...106...31D|doi=10.1016/S0378-7753(01)01069-2}}</ref> Within this market two groups have been identified. The first is the microfuel cell market, in the 1-50 W range for power smaller electronic devices. The second is the 1-5&nbsp;kW range of generators for larger scale power generation (e.g. military outposts, remote oil fields).

Microfuel cells are primarily aimed at penetrating the market for phones and laptops. This can be primarily attributed to the advantageous [[energy density]] provided by fuel cells over a lithium-ion battery, for the entire system. For a battery, this system includes the charger as well as the battery itself. For the fuel cell this system would include the cell, the necessary fuel and peripheral attachments. Taking the full system into consideration, fuel cells have been shown to provide 530&nbsp;Wh/kg compared to 44&nbsp;Wh/kg for lithium-ion batteries.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> However, while the weight of fuel cell systems offer a distinct advantage the current costs are not in their favor. while a battery system will generally cost around $1.20 per Wh, fuel cell systems cost around $5 per Wh, putting them at a significant disadvantage.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

As power demands for cell phones increase, fuel cells could become much more attractive options for larger power generation. The demand for longer on time on phones and computers is something often demanded by consumers so fuel cells could start to make strides into laptop and cell phone markets. The price will continue to go down as developments in fuel cells continues to accelerate. Current strategies for improving micro fuel cells is through the use of [[carbon nanotube]]s. It was shown by Girishkumar et al. that depositing nanotubes on electrode surfaces allows for substantially greater surface area increasing the oxygen reduction rate.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Girishkumar|first1=G.|last2=Vinodgopal|first2=K.|last3=Kamat|first3=Prashant|title=Carbon Nanostructures in Portable Fuel Cells: Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Electrodes for Methanol Oxidation and Oxygen Reduction|journal=J. Phys. Chem.|date=2004|volume=108|issue=52|pages=19960–19966|doi=10.1021/jp046872v|url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/27622419 }}</ref>

Fuel cells for use in larger scale operations also show much promise. Portable power systems that use fuel cells can be used in the leisure sector (i.e. RVs, cabins, marine), the industrial sector (i.e. power for remote locations including gas/oil wellsites, communication towers, security, weather stations), and in the military sector. SFC Energy is a German manufacturer of [[direct methanol fuel cell]]s for a variety of portable power systems.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sfc.com/en/|title=SFC Energy AG - Clean energy everywhere|website=SFC Energy}}</ref> Ensol Systems Inc. is an integrator of portable power systems, using the SFC Energy DMFC.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ensolsystems.com/|title=ensol systems|first=ensol|last=systems|website=Ensol Systems}}</ref> The key advantage of fuel cells in this market is the great power generation per weight. While fuel cells can be expensive, for remote locations that require dependable energy fuel cells hold great power. For a 72-h excursion the comparison in weight is substantial, with a fuel cell only weighing 15 pounds compared to 29 pounds of batteries needed for the same energy.<ref name="sciencedirect.com"/>

===Other applications===
* Providing power for [[base station]]s or [[cell site]]s<ref>[http://fr.chfca.ca/itoolkit.asp?pg=BALLARD_07132009 "Ballard fuel cells to power telecom backup power units for motorola"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706172302/http://fr.chfca.ca/itoolkit.asp?pg=BALLARD_07132009 |date=6 July 2011 }}. Association Canadienne de l'hydrogene et des piles a combustible. 13 July 2009. Accessed 2 August 2011.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cleantech.com/news/3674/india-telecom-get-fuel-cells|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126130543/http://cleantech.com/news/3674/india-telecom-get-fuel-cells|url-status=dead|title=India telecoms to get fuel cell power|archive-date=26 November 2010}}</ref>
* [[Emergency power systems]] are a type of fuel cell system, which may include lighting, generators and other apparatus, to provide backup resources in a crisis or when regular systems fail. They find uses in a wide variety of settings from residential homes to hospitals, scientific laboratories, [[data center]]s,<ref>[http://www.t-systems.com/tsip/en/202342/home/publicsector/news/details/2011-03-21-rz-cottbus "Cottbus receives new local data center"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930144825/http://www.t-systems.com/tsip/en/202342/home/publicsector/news/details/2011-03-21-rz-cottbus |date=30 September 2011 }}. T Systems. 21 March 2011.</ref> <!-- THIS SHOULD BE DISCUSSED ABOVE UNDER POWER. Can anyone try to do that? -->
* Telecommunication<ref>[http://www.fuelcells.org/basics/apps.html "Fuel Cell Applications"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515080800/http://www.fuelcells.org/basics/apps.html |date=15 May 2011 }}. Fuel Cells 2000. Accessed 2 August 2011</ref> equipment and modern naval ships.
* An [[uninterrupted power supply]] (''UPS'') provides emergency power and, depending on the topology, provide line regulation as well to connected equipment by supplying power from a separate source when utility power is not available. Unlike a standby generator, it can provide instant protection from a momentary power interruption.
* [[Smartphones]], laptops and tablets for use in locations where [[Alternating current|AC]] charging may not be readily available.
* Portable charging docks for small electronics (e.g. a belt clip that charges a cell phone or [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]]).
* Small heating appliances<ref>[http://www.dvgw-cert.com/index.php?id=26 DVGW VP 119 Brennstoffzellen-Gasgeräte bis 70 kW] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226193610/http://www.dvgw-cert.com/index.php?id=26 |date=26 February 2021 }}. DVGW. (German)</ref>
* [[Food preservation]], achieved by exhausting the oxygen and automatically maintaining oxygen exhaustion in a shipping container, containing, for example, fresh fish.<ref name=ADN51813>{{cite news|title=Laine Welch: Fuel cell technology boosts long-distance fish shipping |url=http://www.adn.com/2013/05/18/2907670/laine-welch-fuel-cell-technology.html |access-date=19 May 2013 |newspaper=Anchorage Daily News |date=18 May 2013 |author=Laine Welch |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609190326/http://www.adn.com/2013/05/18/2907670/laine-welch-fuel-cell-technology.html |archive-date=9 June 2013 }}</ref>
* Sensors, including in [[Breathalyzer]]s, where the amount of voltage generated by a fuel cell is used to determine the concentration of fuel (alcohol) in the sample.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fuel Cell Technology Applied to Alcohol Breath Testing|url=http://www.intox.com/t-fuelcellwhitepaper.aspx|publisher=Intoximeters, Inc.|access-date=24 October 2013}}</ref>

===Fueling stations===
{{Main|Hydrogen station|Hydrogen highway}}
[[File:Hydrogen vehicle.jpg|thumb|right|[[Hydrogen station|Hydrogen fueling station]]]]

According to FuelCellsWorks, an industry group, at the end of 2019, 330 [[hydrogen station|hydrogen refueling stations]] were open to the public worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fuelcellsworks.com/news/in-2019-83-new-hydrogen-refuelling-stations-worldwide/|title=In 2019: 83 New Hydrogen Refuelling Stations Worldwide - FuelCellsWorks|date=19 February 2020 }}</ref> As of June 2020, there were 178 publicly available hydrogen stations in operation in Asia.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://fuelcellsworks.com/news/in-2019-83-new-hydrogen-refuelling-stations-worldwide/ |title=In 2019, 83 new hydrogen refuelling stations worldwide/ |date=19 February 2020 |access-date=10 June 2020}}</ref> 114 of these were in Japan.<ref name=":0"/> There were at least 177 stations in Europe, and about half of these were in Germany.<ref name="rws2020">{{cite web|url=https://h2.live/en |title=Filling up with H2|access-date=10 June 2020|date=2020-06-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://h2me.eu/about/|title=About {{!}} Hydrogen Mobility Europe|website=h2me.eu|date=19 November 2015|access-date=2020-03-24}}</ref> There were 44 publicly accessible stations in the US, 42 of which were located in California.<ref name=afdc>[http://www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels/stations_counts.html Alternative Fueling Station Counts by State], ''Alternative Fuels Data Center'', accessed 31 August 2020</ref>

A hydrogen fueling station costs between $1 million and $4 million to build.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1506613 |title=Review of Transportation Hydrogen Infrastructure Performance and Reliability |publisher=[[National Renewable Energy Laboratory]]|year=2019|doi=10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.03.027 |access-date=7 October 2020|last1=Kurtz |first1=Jennifer |last2=Sprik |first2=Sam |last3=Bradley |first3=Thomas H. |journal=International Journal of Hydrogen Energy |volume=44 |issue=23 |pages=12010–12023 |s2cid=132085841 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019IJHE...4412010K }}</ref>

=== Social Implications ===
As of 2023, technological barriers to fuel cell adoption remain.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fuel Cells: Current Status and Future Challenges |url=https://nae.edu/7614/FuelCellsCurrentStatusandFutureChallenges |access-date=2023-12-02 |website=NAE Website}}</ref> Fuel cells are primarily for material handling in warehouses, distribution centers, and manufacturing facilities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-19 |title=Fuel Cell Applications 101: Where Are Fuel Cells Used Today? - Plug Power |url=https://www.plugpower.com/fuel-cell-applications-101-where-are-fuel-cells-used-today/,%20https://www.plugpower.com/fuel-cell-applications-101-where-are-fuel-cells-used-today/ |access-date=2023-12-02 |website=www.plugpower.com }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> They are projected to be useful and sustainable in a wider range applications.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=İnci |first=Mustafa |date=2022-10-01 |title=Future vision of hydrogen fuel cells: A statistical review and research on applications, socio-economic impacts and forecasting prospects |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213138822007871 |journal=Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments |volume=53 |pages=102739 |doi=10.1016/j.seta.2022.102739 |bibcode=2022SETA...5302739I |s2cid=252235918 |issn=2213-1388|url-access=subscription }}</ref> But current applications do not often reach lower-income communities,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jessel |first1=Sonal |last2=Sawyer |first2=Samantha |last3=Hernández |first3=Diana |date=2019-12-12 |title=Energy, Poverty, and Health in Climate Change: A Comprehensive Review of an Emerging Literature |journal=Frontiers in Public Health |volume=7 |pages=357 |doi=10.3389/fpubh.2019.00357 |issn=2296-2565 |pmc=6920209 |pmid=31921733 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019FrPH....7..357J }}</ref> though some attempts at inclusivity are being made, for example in accessibility.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydrogen Fuel Cell: Bus Technologies |url=https://www.zemo.org.uk/work-with-us/buses-coaches/low-emission-buses/technologies/hydrogen-fuel-cell.htm |access-date=2023-12-02 |website=www.zemo.org.uk}}</ref>