Editing Goal setting (section)

==Interventions in education==

=== Domain general benefits from goal setting ===
Goal setting research has shown positive results as an effective, and inexpensive to implement intervention for a broad range of academic purposes across a range of age groups. Beginning with struggling undergraduate students, there is some evidence that when compared to a control group, students who had set general rather than domain specific academic goals experienced the following benefits in the semester after the intervention namely, i) increased GPA, ii) a higher probability of maintaining a full course load, iii) a reduction in self reported negative affect. While goal setting research tends to be domain specific, these results among others, does suggest that benefits from goal setting may have broader benefits for goal setters even beyond the domain of the goal itself.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Morisano|first1=Dominique|last2=Hirsh|first2=Jacob B.|last3=Peterson|first3=Jordan B.|last4=Pihl|first4=Robert O.|last5=Shore|first5=Bruce M.|date=2010|title=Setting, elaborating, and reflecting on personal goals improves academic performance|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|language=en|volume=95|issue=2|pages=255–264|doi=10.1037/a0018478|pmid=20230067|issn=1939-1854}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Travers|first1=Cheryl J.|last2=Morisano|first2=Dominique|last3=Locke|first3=Edwin A.|date=June 2015|title=Self-reflection, growth goals, and academic outcomes: A qualitative study|journal=The British Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=85|issue=2|pages=224–241|doi=10.1111/bjep.12059|issn=2044-8279|pmid=25546509}}</ref>

Further work with undergraduates has suggested that these broader benefits apply even if non-academic goals are set. This could imply that the original goal setting theory can be modified to include a more domain general "spread" effect from superordinate life goals and that writing about general life goals regardless of domain can improve academic performance. Developing these life goals can include linked procedures such as i) reflecting on/envisaging one's best possible life, ii) listing good quality goals relevant to achieving this best possible life, iii) strategizing on how to achieve their attainment, iv) reflect in writing about anticipated obstacles, v) developing specific plans for overcoming these anticipated obstacles.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-01-01|title=Writing about personal goals and plans regardless of goal type boosts academic performance|journal=Contemporary Educational Psychology|language=en|volume=60|pages=101823|doi=10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.101823|issn=0361-476X|doi-access=free|last1=Schippers|first1=Michaéla C.|last2=Morisano|first2=Dominique|last3=Locke|first3=Edwin A.|last4=Scheepers|first4=Ad W.A.|last5=Latham|first5=Gary P.|last6=De Jong|first6=Elisabeth M.|hdl=1765/123006|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

=== Closing achievement gaps based on gender and ethnicity ===
Goal setting interventions have shown promising and scalable results in terms of closing persistent gender (ongoing male underperformance) and ethnicity achievement gaps in the areas of academic achievement and increased retention rates. In one study persistent male underperformance in tertiary education was almost entirely closed to achieve parity with females after one year of the intervention. Similar albeit slower positive impacts in closing the ethnicity achievement gap by the second year of the same goal setting intervention were reported. These findings suggest that a goal setting intervention early in students' academic careers can significantly and substantially reduce gender and ethnic minority inequalities in academic achievement at least at the tertiary level.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Schippers|first1=Michaéla C.|last2=Scheepers|first2=Ad W. A.|last3=Peterson|first3=Jordan B.|date=2015-06-09|title=A scalable goal-setting intervention closes both the gender and ethnic minority achievement gap|journal=Palgrave Communications|language=en|volume=1|issue=1|pages=1–12|doi=10.1057/palcomms.2015.14|issn=2055-1045|doi-access=free}}</ref> More work remains to be done to see if similar conclusions can be drawn at the level of secondary education.

=== Use of reflection diaries for goal setting ===
Goal-setting activities with final-year university students focused around self-reflective and personal growth through setting three growth goals and recording progress in reflective diaries shows that goal setting and making progress towards the goals can have many positive impacts. These include increased self-esteem, time and improved stress management and self-monitoring skills as well as motivating, and energizing effects. These suggest that, at least with undergraduates, the setting of growth goals with a reflective diary element can be a useful addition to academic programs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Travers|first1=Cheryl J.|last2=Morisano|first2=Dominique|last3=Locke|first3=Edwin A.|date=June 2015|title=Self-reflection, growth goals, and academic outcomes: A qualitative study|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/bjep.12059|journal=British Journal of Educational Psychology|language=en|volume=85|issue=2|pages=224–241|doi=10.1111/bjep.12059|pmid=25546509|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=== Online learning and massive open online courses (MOOCs) ===
{{See also|Massive open online course}}
Goal-setting activities including the setting of both performance and learning goals have been associated with both increased performance and completion rates for MOOC participants. Students who completed a goal setting writing activity at the start of a course achieved more over a longer period of time than those who did not set goals.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Kun|last2=Johnsen|first2=Justin|last3=Canelas|first3=Dorian A.|title=Persistence, performance, and goal setting in massive open online courses|url=https://bera-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/bjet.13068|journal=British Journal of Educational Technology|year=2021|volume=52|issue=3|pages=1215–1229|language=en|doi=10.1111/bjet.13068|s2cid=233636341|issn=1467-8535|url-access=subscription}}</ref> For online learning more generally, students who have a better understanding of the tasks set better more detailed goals and in turn achieve higher performance suggesting that instructional time spent explaining learning tasks can be beneficial.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Beckman|first1=Karley|last2=Apps|first2=Tiffani|last3=Bennett|first3=Sue|last4=Dalgarno|first4=Barney|last5=Kennedy|first5=Gregor|last6=Lockyer|first6=Lori|date=2021-04-03|title=Self-regulation in open-ended online assignment tasks: the importance of initial task interpretation and goal setting|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1654450|journal=Studies in Higher Education|volume=46|issue=4|pages=821–835|doi=10.1080/03075079.2019.1654450|s2cid=202255323|issn=0307-5079|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=== Behavior management ===
Properly implemented taught goal-setting programs are effective in K-12 schools for behavior and emotional management interventions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Epton|first=T|date=2017|title=Unique effects of setting goals on behavior change: Systematic review and meta-analysis.|url=https://doi.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037/ccp0000260|access-date=2021-04-15|journal=Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology|volume=85|issue=12|pages=1182–1198|doi=10.1037/ccp0000260|pmid=29189034|s2cid=22124233|hdl=1893/25978|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In particular, programs that included student input on the goal setting process as well as the collection of targeting data to monitor progress and ensure the delivery of high quality feedback to students on progress towards goals were more effective behavior management interventions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bruhn|first1=Allison L.|last2=Mcdaniel|first2=Sara C.|last3=Fernando|first3=Josephine|last4=Troughton|first4=Leonard|date=2016-02-01|title=Goal-Setting Interventions for Students with Behavior Problems: A Systematic Review|journal=Behavioral Disorders|language=en|volume=41|issue=2|pages=107–121|doi=10.17988/0198-7429-41.2.107|s2cid=148116102|issn=0198-7429|doi-access=free}}</ref> In order to ensure a properly designed goal setting intervention for behavior management some variation of a checklist can be an effective addition to behavioral management programs. A typical such checklist could include the following factors:

# Identify and define behavior
# Establish a behavior monitoring plan
# Collect baseline data
# Set goals
# Monitor progress towards goals
# Review data<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kumm|first1=Skip|last2=Maggin|first2=Daniel|date=2021-03-16|title=Intensifying Goal-Setting Interventions for Students With Emotional and Behavioral Disorders|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1074295621996616|journal=Beyond Behavior|volume=30|language=en|pages=14–23|doi=10.1177/1074295621996616|s2cid=233279544|issn=1074-2956|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Goal-setting also works effectively either or its own or as part of a package of other behavior management interventions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bruhn|first1=Allison Leigh|last2=Fernando|first2=Josephine|last3=McDaniel|first3=Sara|last4=Troughton|first4=Leonard|date=2017-08-01|title=Putting Behavioral Goal-Setting Research Into Practice|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1074295617711208|journal=Beyond Behavior|language=en|volume=26|issue=2|pages=66–73|doi=10.1177/1074295617711208|s2cid=149195514|issn=1074-2956|url-access=subscription}}</ref>