Editing Infant formula (section)

==History==
The [[Wabanaki Confederacy|Wabanaki]] and other Native American tribal nations of North America made an infant formula from nuts and cornmeal.<ref>{{Cite web| vauthors = Kamila AY |date=2020-11-08|title=Americans have been enjoying nut milk and nut butter for at least 4 centuries|url=https://www.pressherald.com/2020/11/08/vegan-kitchen-americans-have-been-enjoying-nut-milk-and-nut-butter-for-at-least-4-centuries/|access-date=2021-01-06|website=Portland Press Herald}}</ref> [[Elizabeth Hanson (captive of Native Americans)|Elizabeth Hanson]] was kidnapped by Wabanaki in 1725 and a Native American woman showed Hanson how to make this infant formula and she included this in her captivity narrative.

===Early infant foods===
In 1865, the first infant food was invented {{where|date=December 2023}} .<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Stevens EE, Patrick TE, Pickler R | title = A history of infant feeding | journal = The Journal of Perinatal Education | volume = 18 | issue = 2 | pages = 32–39 | year = 2009 | pmid = 20190854 | pmc = 2684040 | doi = 10.1624/105812409X426314 }}</ref>
Throughout history, mothers who could not breastfeed their babies either employed a [[wet nurse]]<ref name="Schuman">{{cite web | author = Schuman A | title = A concise history of infant formula (twists and turns included) | publisher = Contemporary Pediatric | date = February 1, 2003 | url = http://www.contemporarypediatrics.com/contpeds/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=111702 | access-date = September 16, 2006 | journal =  | archive-date = August 23, 2006 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060823074531/http://www.contemporarypediatrics.com/contpeds/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=111702 | url-status = dead }}</ref> or, less frequently, prepared food for their babies, a process known as "dry nursing".<ref name = "Schuman"/><ref name="food-timeline">{{cite web |work=[[The Food Timeline]] | vauthors= Olver L |author-link=Lynne Olver |title=Food Timeline – history notes: baby food |year=2004 |url=http://www.foodtimeline.org/foodbaby.html |access-date=September 16, 2006}}</ref> Baby food composition varied according to region and economic status.<ref name="food-timeline"/> In Europe and North America during the early 19th century, the prevalence of wet nursing began to decrease, while the practice of feeding babies mixtures based on animal milk rose in popularity.<ref name="Spaulding">{{cite book | vauthors = Spaulding M, Welch P | title = Nurturing Yesterday's Child: A Portrayal of the Drake Collection of Paediatric History | publisher = B C Decker Inc | year = 1994 | isbn=978-0-920474-91-4 }}</ref><ref name="Hale">{{cite book | vauthors = Hale SJ | author-link = Sarah Josepha Hale | title = The Ladies' New Book of Cookery: A Practical System for Private Families in Town and Country | publisher = H. Long & Brother | year = 1852 | location = New York | pages = 437 | url = https://digital.lib.msu.edu/projects/cookbooks/html/books/book_19.cfm }}</ref> <!-- FAIR USE of Nestle-milk-poster.jpg: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nestle-milk-poster.jpg for rationale --> [[File:Nestle-milk-poster.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Poster advertisement for Nestle's Milk by Théophile Alexandre Steinlen, 1895]] This trend was driven by cultural changes as well as increased sanitation measures,<ref name="IOM FNB">{{cite book | vauthors=((Institute of Medicine)), ((Food and Nutrition Board)), ((Committee on the Evaluation of the Addition of Ingredients New to Infant Formula)) | title=Infant Formula: Evaluating the Safety of New Ingredients | publisher=National Academies Press | year=2004 | isbn=978-0-309-18550-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aBLX_59za9sC | access-date=2022-05-16}}</ref> and it continued throughout the 19th and much of the 20th century, with a notable increase after [[Elijah Pratt]] invented and patented the [[Baby bottle#History|India-rubber nipple]] in 1845.<ref name = "Schuman"/><ref name="bottle museum">{{cite web|title=The history of the feeding bottle |url=http://www.babybottle-museum.co.uk/teats%20through%20the%20ages.htm |access-date=September 16, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060830112545/http://www.babybottle-museum.co.uk/teats%20through%20the%20ages.htm |archive-date=August 30, 2006 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref> As early as 1846, scientists and nutritionists noted an increase in medical problems and infant mortality was associated with dry nursing.<ref name="Spaulding"/><ref name="simon">{{cite book | vauthors = Simon JF | title = Animal chemistry: with reference to the physiology and pathology of man | publisher = Lea and Blanchard | year = 1846 | oclc = 5884760 }}</ref> In an attempt to improve the quality of manufactured baby foods, in 1867, [[Justus von Liebig]] developed the world's first commercial infant formula, ''Liebig's Soluble Food for Babies''.<ref name="Levenstein">{{cite book | vauthors = Levenstein H | title = Revolution at the Table: The Transformation of the American Diet | url = https://archive.org/details/revolutionattabl00leve | url-access = registration | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1988 | location = New York | page=[https://archive.org/details/revolutionattabl00leve/page/122 122] | isbn=978-0-520-23439-0 }}</ref> The success of this product quickly gave rise to competitors such as [[Mellin's Food]], Ridge's Food for Infants and [[Nestlé]]'s Milk.<ref name="levenstein2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Levenstein H | title = "Best for babies" or "preventable infanticide"? The controversy over artificial feeding of infants in America, 1880-1920 | journal = Journal of American History | volume = 70 | issue = 1 | pages = 75–94 | date = June 1983 | pmid = 11617247 | doi = 10.2307/1890522 | jstor = 1890522 }}</ref>{{clear left}}

===Raw milk formulas===
As physicians became increasingly concerned about the quality of such foods, medical recommendations such as [[Thomas Morgan Rotch]]'s "percentage method" (published in 1890) began to be distributed, and gained widespread popularity by 1907.<ref name = "Schuman"/> These complex formulas recommended that parents mix cow's milk, water, cream, and sugar or honey in specific ratios to achieve the nutritional balance believed to approximate human milk reformulated in such a way as to accommodate the believed digestive capability of the infant.<ref name="Fomon"/>

[[File:Nestlé Food advertisement, 1915.jpg|thumb|A 1915 advertisement for "Nestlé's Food"]]
At the dawn of the 20th century in the United States, most infants were breastfed, although many received some formula feeding as well. Home-made "percentage method" formulas were more commonly used than commercial formulas in both Europe and the United States.<ref name="friedenwald">{{cite book | vauthors = Friedenwald J, Ruhrah J | title = Diet in Health and Disease | publisher = W.B. Saunders Co. | year = 1910 | location = New York | url = https://hearth.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=hearth;idno=4388698 }}</ref> They were less expensive and were widely believed to be healthier. However, formula-fed babies exhibited more diet-associated medical problems, such as [[scurvy]], [[rickets]] and bacterial infections than breastfed babies. By 1920, the incidence of scurvy and rickets in formula-fed babies had greatly decreased through the addition of [[orange juice]] and [[cod liver oil]] to home-made formulas. Bacterial infections associated with formula remained a problem more prevalent in the United States than in Europe, where milk was usually boiled prior to use in formulas.<ref name="friedenwald"/>

===Evaporated milk formulas===
In the 1920s and 1930s, [[evaporated milk]] began to be widely commercially available at low prices, and several clinical studies in the period suggested that breastfed babies and babies fed evaporated milk equally thrived.<ref name = "Schuman"/><ref name="Marriott">{{cite journal | vauthors = Marriott WM, Schoenthal L | title = An experimental study of the use of unsweetened evaporated milk for the preparation of infant feeding formulas | journal = Archives of Pediatrics | volume = 46 | pages = 135–148 | year = 1929 }}</ref>

These studies, accompanied by the affordable price of [[evaporated milk]] and the availability of the home icebox initiated a tremendous rise in the use of evaporated milk formulas.<ref name = "Fomon"/> By the late 1930s, the use of evaporated milk formulas in the United States surpassed all commercial formulas, and by 1950 over half of all babies in the United States were reared on such formulas.<ref name="Schuman"/>

===Commercial formulas===
In parallel with the enormous shift (in industrialized nations) away from breastfeeding to home-made formulas, nutrition scientists continued to analyze human milk and attempted to make infant formulas that more closely matched its composition.<ref name="Fomon" /> [[Maltose]] and [[dextrin]]s were believed nutritionally important, and in 1912, the [[Mead Johnson]] Company released a milk additive called ''Dextri-Maltose''. This formula was made available to mothers only by physicians. In 1919, milkfats were replaced with a blend of animal and vegetable fats as part of the continued drive to closer simulate human milk. This formula was called SMA for "simulated milk adapted."<ref name="Schuman" />

In the late 1920s, [[Alfred Bosworth (inventor)|Alfred Bosworth]] released ''[[Similac]]'' (for "similar to lactation"), and Mead Johnson released ''Sobee''.<ref name="Schuman" /> Several other formulas were released over the next few decades, but commercial formulas did not begin to seriously compete with evaporated milk formulas until the 1950s. The reformulation and concentration of Similac in 1951, and the introduction (by Mead Johnson) of Enfamil (for "infant milk") in 1959 were accompanied by marketing campaigns that provided inexpensive formula to hospitals and pediatricians.<ref name="Schuman" /> By the early 1960s, commercial formulas were more commonly used than evaporated milk formulas in the United States, which all but vanished in the 1970s. By the early 1970s, over 75% of American babies were fed on formulas, almost entirely commercially produced.<ref name="Fomon" />

When birth rates in industrial nations tapered off during the 1960s, infant formula companies heightened marketing campaigns in non-industrialized countries. The poor sanitation in these countries led to steeply increased [[infant mortality|mortality rates]] among infants fed the often contaminated formula.<ref name = "Solomon">{{cite news| vauthors = Solomon S | title = The Controversy Over Infant Formula | work = The New York Times | pages = 8 | url = https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D06E2D61738F935A35751C1A967948260&sec=health&spon=&pagewanted=5| access-date =August 11, 2008 | date=December 6, 1981}}</ref> Additionally, a WHO has cited over-diluting formula preparations as resulting in infant malnourishment.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130806074415/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2013/world_breastfeeding_week_20130730/en/ Breastfeeding: Only 1 in 5 countries fully implement WHO’s infant formula Code], WHO, 30 July 2013.</ref> Organized protests, the most famous of which was the [[Nestlé boycott]] of 1977, called for an end to unethical marketing. This boycott is ongoing, as the current coordinators maintain that Nestlé engages in marketing practices which violate the [[International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes]].

===Generic brand formulas===
In addition to commercially marketed brands, [[generic brand]]s (or store brands) of infant formula were introduced in the United States in 1997, first by PBM Products. These [[private label]] formulas are sold by many leading food and drug retailers such as [[Wal-Mart]], [[Target Corporation|Target]], [[Kroger]], [[Loblaws]], and [[Walgreens]]. All infant formula brands in the United States are required to adhere to the [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) guidelines. As reported by the [[Mayo Clinic]]: “as with most consumer products, brand-name infant formulas cost more than generic brands. But that doesn't mean that brand-name [Similac, Nestle, Enfamil] formulas are better. Although manufacturers may vary somewhat in their formula recipes, the FDA requires that all formulas contain the same nutrient density.”<ref>[http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/infant-formula/PR00058 Mayo Clinic], November 2007</ref>

Similarly, in Canada all infant formulas regardless of brand are required to meet standards set by Health Canada.<ref>Government of Alberta, Health and Wellness. [http://www.health.alberta.ca/health-info/baby-formula.html Infant formula.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007111614/http://www.health.alberta.ca/health-info/baby-formula.html |date=October 7, 2011 }}</ref>

===Follow-on, transition, and toddler formulas===
Follow-on or toddler formulas are sold for ages 6 months to 3 years (when infants are typically breastfed). In the US, a '''transition formula''' is marketed for children from age 9 to 24 months, and a '''toddler milk''' is sold for children age 12 to 26 months.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pomeranz JL, Romo Palafox MJ, Harris JL | title = Toddler drinks, formulas, and milks: Labeling practices and policy implications | journal = Preventive Medicine | volume = 109 | pages = 11–16 | date = April 2018 | pmid = 29339115 | doi = 10.1016/j.ypmed.2018.01.009 | s2cid = 205851897 }}</ref> In the UK, '''follow-on milk''' is marketed towards children 6-12 months, and toddler milk for children aged 2 to 3 years. Toddler milk marketed in the US contains [[powdered milk]], [[corn syrup]] and other [[added sugar]]s, [[vegetable oil]], and [[salt]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2018/02/20/585875339/toddler-milks-filling-a-nutritional-need-or-a-marketing-niche|title=Toddler Milks: Filling A Nutritional Need Or A Marketing Niche?|publisher=[[NPR]]|language=en|access-date=2020-02-26}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2020/02/should-you-buy-toddler-milk/606028/|title=The Ominous Rise of Toddler Milk| vauthors = Khazan O |date=2020-02-04|website=The Atlantic|language=en-US|access-date=2020-02-26}}</ref>

Toddler formulas are not nutritionally complete, nor are they subject to the same regulations or [[List of food labeling regulations|food labeling laws]] as infant formula.<ref name=":0" /> Critics have argued that follow-on and toddler formulas were introduced to circumvent the regulations regarding infant formula and have resulted in confusing advertising.<ref name="loophole" />

An early example of follow-on formula was introduced by [[Wyeth]] in the Philippines in 1987, following the introduction in this country of regulations on infant formula advertising, but which did not address follow-on formulas (products that did not exist at the time of their drafting).<ref name="milkcode" /> Similarly, while infant formula advertising is illegal in the United Kingdom, follow-on formula advertising is legal, and the similar packaging and market results in follow-on advertisements frequently being interpreted as advertisements for formula.<ref name="loophole"/> (See also [[#Policy, industry and marketing|industry and marketing]], below.)

These products have also recently fallen under criticism for contributing to the [[childhood obesity]] epidemic in some developed countries due to their marketing and flavoring practices.<ref>ABC News. [https://abcnews.go.com/Health/Diabetes/mead-johnson-drops-chocolate-flavored-emfagrow-parent-uproar/story?id=10876301 Chocolate Toddler 'Formula' Pulled After Sugar Uproar.] June 10, 2010.</ref> The drinks are also expensive.<ref name=":2" /> Although usually not quite as expensive as infant formula,<ref name=":1" /> they can cost four times the price of cow's milk.<ref name=":2" />

===Usage since 1970s===
Since the early 1970s, industrial countries have witnessed a resurgence in [[breastfeeding]] among newborns and infants to 6 months of age.<ref name="Ryan"/> This upswing in breastfeeding has been accompanied by a deferment in the average age of introduction of other foods (such as cow's milk), resulting in increased use of both breastfeeding and infant formula between the ages of 3–12 months.<ref name="Fomon"/><ref name="Ryan"/>

The global infant formula market has been estimated at $7.9 billion,<ref name="kaminis">[https://web.archive.org/web/20050211092050/http://businessweek.com/investor/content/jan2005/pi20050111_1011_pi008.htm A Growing Boost for Baby Formula], by Markos Kaminis, BusinessWeek, January 11, 2005</ref> with North America and Western Europe accounting for 33% of the market and considered largely saturated, and Asia representing 53% of the market.<ref name="ubic"/> South East Asia is a particularly large fraction of the world market relative to its population.<ref name="ubic"/> Infant formula is the largest segment of the baby food market,<ref name="ubic">[http://www.ubic-consulting.com/food/ingredient/chemical-industries/ingredients-worl-infant-formula-market.html Ingredients for the World Infant Formula Market] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907044946/http://www.ubic-consulting.com/food/ingredient/chemical-industries/ingredients-worl-infant-formula-market.html |date=September 7, 2015 }}, UBIC consulting</ref><!--<ref name="agc">{{cite web|url=http://answers.google.com/answers/threadview?id=423654|title=Google Answers: Infant Formula Sales/Market/Statistics|website=answers.google.com|access-date=April 3, 2018}}</ref>--> with the fraction given as between 40%<ref name="ubic"/> and 70%.<ref name="kaminis" /><!--<ref name="agc"/>-->

Leading health organizations (e.g. [[World Health Organization|WHO]], U.S. [[Centers for Disease Control]] and [[United States Department of Health and Human Services|Department of Health and Human Services]]) are attempting to reduce the use of infant formula and increase the prevalence of breastfeeding from birth through 12 to 24 months of age through [[public health]] awareness campaigns.<ref name="CDC Breastfeeding FAQ">{{cite web | title = Breastfeeding Frequently Asked Questions | publisher = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | url =https://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/faq/index.htm | date = May 22, 2007 | access-date =May 24, 2008}}</ref><ref name="CDC Promotion">{{cite web | title = Promotion & Support of Breastfeeding and Obesity Prevention | publisher = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | date = May 22, 2007 | url = https://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/promotion/index.htm | access-date =May 24, 2008}}</ref><ref name="HHS Promotion">{{cite press release | title = Public Service Campaign to Promote Breastfeeding Awareness Launched | publisher = United States Department of Health and Human Services | date = June 4, 2006 | url = https://www.hhs.gov/news/press/2004pres/20040604.html | access-date = May 22, 2008 | archive-date = April 28, 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080428015415/http://www.hhs.gov/news/press/2004pres/20040604.html | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref name="WHO Promotion">{{cite web | title = Promoting proper feeding for infants and young children | publisher = World Health Organization | url =https://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/infantfeeding/en/index.html | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20060322073228/http://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/infantfeeding/en/index.html | url-status =dead | archive-date =March 22, 2006 | access-date =May 24, 2008}}</ref> The specific goals and approaches of these [[breastfeeding promotion]] programs, and the policy environment surrounding their implementation, vary by country. As a policy basic framework, the [[International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes]], adopted by the WHO's [[World Health Assembly]] in 1981, requires infant formula companies to preface their product information with statements that breastfeeding is the best way of feeding babies and that a substitute should only be used after consultation with health professionals.<ref name="ICMBS">{{cite book | title = International Code of Marketing of Breast-Milk Substitutes | publisher = World Health Organization | year = 1981 | url =https://www.who.int/bookorders/anglais/detart1.jsp?sesslan=1&codlan=1&codcol=15&codcch=94 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20031225204504/http://www.who.int/bookorders/anglais/detart1.jsp?sesslan=1&codlan=1&codcol=15&codcch=94 | url-status =dead | archive-date =December 25, 2003 | isbn = 978-92-4-154160-2 }}</ref> The [[Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative]] (BFHI) also restricts use by hospitals of free formula or other infant care aids provided by formula companies. (See also [[#Policy, industry and marketing|Policy]] section below.) While the Code was intended to restrict inappropriate ''marketing'' of infant formula, not access to it, parents have complained of being lectured or made to sign waivers implying formula would harm their babies in BFHI hospitals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=My "Baby Friendly" Hospital Harmed My Baby: How Hospitals Can Do Better {{!}} National Women's Health Network |url=https://nwhn.org/my-baby-friendly-hospital-harmed-my-baby-and-how-hospitals-can-do-better/ |access-date=2022-03-12 |language=en-US |archive-date=April 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407082210/https://nwhn.org/my-baby-friendly-hospital-harmed-my-baby-and-how-hospitals-can-do-better/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>