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==Organization== Organization of laboratories is an area of focus in sociology. Scientists consider how their work should be organized, which could be based on themes, teams, projects or fields of expertise. Work is divided, not only between different jobs of the laboratory such as the researchers, engineers and [[Laboratory technician|technicians]], but also in terms of autonomy (should the work be individual or in groups).<ref>{{Cite book|title=The sociology of scientific work|last=Vinck|first=Dominique|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing Limited|year=2010|location=The Lypiatts|pages=83, 97β100}}</ref> For example, one research group has a schedule where they conduct research on their own topic of interest for one day of the week, but for the rest they work on a given group project.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Looking at Ourselves: An Examination of the Social Organisation of Two Research Laboratories|last=Harper|first=Richard H.R|publisher=Reprinted as Rank Xerox Technical Report EPCβ92β108|year=1992|location=Cambridge|pages=330β337}}</ref> Finance management is yet another organizational issue. The laboratory itself is a historically dated organizational model. It came about due to the observation that the quality of work of researchers who collaborate is overall greater than a researcher working in isolation. From the 1950s, the laboratory has evolved from being an educational tool used by teachers to attract the top students into research, into an organizational model allowing a high level of scientific productivity. Some forms of organization in laboratories include: *'''Their size''': Varies from a handful of researches to several hundred. *'''The division of labor''': "Occurs between designers and operatives; researchers, engineers, and technicians; theoreticians and experimenters; senior researchers, junior researchers and students; those who publish, those who sign the publications and the others; and between specialities." <ref>The sociology of scientific work p98</ref> *'''The coordination mechanisms''': Which includes the formalization of objectives and tasks; the standardization of procedures (protocols, project management, quality management, knowledge management), the validation of publications and cross-cutting activities (number and type of seminars). There are three main factors that contribute to the organizational form of a laboratory : * The educational background of the researchers and their socialization process. * The intellectual process involved in their work, including the type of investigation and equipment they use. * The laboratory's history. Other forms of organization include social organization. === Social organization === A study by Richard H.R. Harper, involving two laboratories, will help elucidate the concept of social organization in laboratories. The main subject of the study revolved around the relationship between the staff of a laboratory (researchers, administrators, receptionists, technicians, etc.) and their Locator. A Locator is an employee of a Laboratory who is in charge of knowing where each member of the laboratory currently is, based on a unique signal emitted from the badge of each staff member. The study describes social relationships among different classes of jobs, such as the relationship between researchers and the Locator. It does not describe the social relationship between employees within a class, such as the relationship between researchers. Through [[Ethnography|ethnographic]] studies, one finding is that, among the personnel, each class (researchers, administrators...) has a different degree of entitlement, which varies per laboratory. Entitlement can be both formal or informal (meaning it is not enforced), but each class is aware and conforms to its existence. The degree of entitlement, which is also referred to as a staff's [[rights]], affects social interaction between staff. By looking at the various interactions among staff members, we can determine their social position in the organization. As an example, administrators, in one lab of the study, do not have the right to ask the Locator where the researchers currently are, as they are not entitled to such information. On the other hand, researchers do have access to this type of information. So a consequence of this social hierarchy is that the Locator discloses various degrees of information, based on the staff member and their rights. The Locator does not want to disclose information that could jeopardize his relationship with the members of staff. The Locator adheres to the rights of each class. Social hierarchy is also related to attitudes towards technologies. This was inferred based on the attitude of various jobs towards their lab badge. Their attitude depended on how that job viewed their badge from a standpoint of utility, (how is the badge useful for my job) morality (what are my morals on privacy, as it relates to being tracked by this badge) and relations (how will I be seen by others if I refuse to wear this badge). For example, a receptionist would view the badge as useful, as it would help them locate members of staff during the day. Illustrating relations, researchers would also wear their badge due to informal pressures, such as not wanting to look like a spoil-sport, or not wanting to draw attention to themselves. Another finding is the resistance to change in a social organization. Staff members feel ill at ease when changing patterns of entitlement, obligation, respect, informal and formal hierarchy, and more. In summary, differences in attitude among members of the laboratory are explained by social organization: A person's attitudes are intimately related to the role they have in an organization. This hierarchy helps understand information distribution, control, and attitudes towards technologies in the laboratory.<ref name=":0" />
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