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===High-explosive shells=== {{Redirect|High-explosive shell|the material|high explosives}} [[File:75mm melanite shell section for instruction.jpg|thumb|right|[[Picric acid]] was used in the first high-explosive shells. Cut out section of a high-explosive shell belonging to a [[Canon de 75 modèle 1897]].]] Although smokeless powders were used as a propellant, they could not be used as the substance for the explosive warhead, because shock sensitivity sometimes caused [[detonation]] in the artillery barrel at the time of firing. [[Picric acid]] was the first high-explosive nitrated [[organic compound]] widely considered suitable to withstand the shock of firing in conventional [[artillery]]. In 1885, based on research of Hermann Sprengel, French chemist [[Eugène Turpin]] patented the use of pressed and cast picric acid in [[Rock blasting|blasting]] charges and [[artillery shell]]s. In 1887, the French government adopted a mixture of picric acid and guncotton under the name ''Melinite''. In 1888, Britain started manufacturing a very similar mixture in [[Lydd]], Kent, under the name ''Lyddite''. Japan followed with an "improved" formula known as ''[[shimose powder]]''. In 1889, a similar material, a mixture of ammonium cresylate with trinitrocresol, or an ammonium salt of trinitrocresol, started to be manufactured under the name ''[[ecrasite]]'' in [[Austria-Hungary]]. By 1894, Russia was manufacturing artillery shells filled with picric acid. Ammonium picrate (known as ''Dunnite'' or [[explosive D]]) was used by the United States beginning in 1906.<ref name="brown">Brown, G. I. (1998) ''The Big Bang: a History of Explosives''. Sutton Publishing. {{ISBN|0-7509-1878-0}}. pp. 151–163.</ref><ref>Marc Ferro. ''The Great War''. London and New York: Routeladge Classics, p. 98.</ref> Germany began filling artillery shells with [[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]] in 1902. [[Toluene]] was less readily available than phenol, and TNT is less powerful than picric acid, but the improved safety of munitions manufacturing and storage caused the replacement of picric acid by TNT for most military purposes between the World Wars.<ref name="brown"/> However, pure TNT was expensive to produce and most nations made some use of mixtures using cruder TNT and ammonium nitrate, some with other compounds included. These fills included Ammonal, Schneiderite and [[Amatol]]. The latter was still in wide use in [[World War II]]. The percentage of shell weight taken up by its explosive fill increased steadily throughout the 20th Century. Less than 10% was usual in the first few decades; by [[World War II]], leading designs were around 15%. However, British researchers in that war identified 25% as being the optimal design for [[anti-personnel]] purposes, based on the recognition that far smaller fragments than hitherto would give a better effect. This guideline was achieved by the 1960s with the 155 mm L15 shell, developed as part of the German-British [[FH-70]] program. The key requirement for increasing the HE content without increasing shell weight was to reduce the thickness of shell walls, which required improvements in high tensile steel. [[File:15in howitzer Menin Rd 5 October 1917.jpg|thumb|15 inch high-explosive [[howitzer]] shells, circa 1917]] The most common shell type is [[high explosive]], commonly referred to simply as HE. They have a strong [[steel]] case, a bursting charge, and a [[Artillery fuse|fuse]]. The fuse detonates the bursting charge which shatters the case and scatters hot, sharp case pieces (''fragments'', ''splinters'') at high velocity. Most of the damage to soft targets, such as unprotected personnel, is caused by shell pieces rather than by the blast. The term "shrapnel" is sometimes used to describe the shell pieces, but [[shrapnel shell]]s functioned very differently and are long obsolete. The speed of fragments is limited by [[Gurney equations]]. Depending on the type of [[Artillery fuse|fuse]] used the HE shell can be set to burst on the ground (percussion), in the air above the ground, which is called air burst<ref>{{cite book |author1=Marc Garlasco |author2=Fred Abrahams |author3=Bill van Esveld |author4=Fares Akram |author5=Darryl Li |editor1=Joe Stock |editor2=James Ross |editor3=Iain Levine |title=Rain of Fire: Israel's Unlawful Use of White Phosphorus in Gaza |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nBXSdMCUuBIC&pg=PA3 |year=2009 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |isbn=978-1-56432-458-0 |page=3}}</ref> (time or [[Proximity fuze|proximity]]), or after penetrating a short distance into the ground (percussion with delay, either to transmit more ground shock to covered positions, or to reduce the spread of fragments). Projectiles with enhanced fragmentation are called high-explosive fragmentation (HE-FRAG).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.forecastinternational.com/archive/disp_pdf.cfm?DACH_RECNO=818 |title=Ordnance & Munitions Forecast |date=2010 |website=www.forecastinternational.com}}</ref> [[RDX]] and TNT mixtures are the standard chemicals used, notably [[Composition B]] and [[Cyclotol]]. The introduction of "insensitive munition" requirements, agreements and regulations in the 1990s caused modern western designs to use various types of plastic bonded explosives (PBX) based on RDX. ====Common==== [[File:BL9.2inchCommonShellMkV.jpg|thumb|upright|BL 9.2 in common shell Mk V]] [[Glossary of British ordnance terms#Common shell|Common shells]] designated in the early (i.e. 1800s) British explosive shells were filled with "low explosives" such as "P mixture" (gunpowder) and usually with a fuze in the nose. Common shells on bursting (non-detonating) tended to break into relatively large fragments which continued along the shell's trajectory rather than laterally. They had some incendiary effect. In the late 19th century "double common shells" were developed, lengthened so as to approach twice the standard shell weight, to carry more powder and hence increase explosive effect. They suffered from instability in flight and low velocity and were not widely used. In 1914, common shells with a diameter of 6-inches and larger were of cast steel, while smaller diameter shells were of forged steel for service and cast iron for practice.{{sfnp|Treatise on Ammunition|1915|pages= 158, 159, 198 }} They were replaced by "common lyddite" shells in the late 1890s but some stocks remained as late as 1914. In British service common shells were typically painted black with a red band behind the nose to indicate the shell was filled. ====Common pointed==== [[File:QF12&14pdrCPMkIIShellDiagram.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Glossary of British ordnance terms#Fixed QF|QF]] [[QF 12-pounder 12 cwt naval gun|12-pounder]] common pointed shell]] [[Glossary of British ordnance terms#CP|Common pointed shells]], or CP were a type of common shell used in naval service from the 1890s – 1910s which had a solid nose and a percussion fuze in the base rather than the common shell's nose fuze. The ogival two C.R.H. solid pointed nose was considered suitable for attacking shipping but was not armour-piercing – the main function was still explosive. They were of cast or forged (three- and six-pounder) steel and contained a gunpowder bursting charge slightly smaller than that of a common shell, a trade off for the longer heavier nose.{{sfnp|Treatise on Ammunition|1915|page= 161 }} In British service common pointed shells were typically painted black, except 12-pounder shells specific for QF guns which were painted lead colour to distinguish them from 12-pounder shells usable with both BL and QF guns. A red ring behind the nose indicated the shell was filled. By World War II they were superseded in Royal Navy service by common pointed capped (CPC) and semi-armour piercing ([[#S.A.P.|SAP]]), filled with TNT. ====Common lyddite==== [[File:BL6inchMkVIILydditeShell.jpg|thumb|upright|Common lyddite six-inch naval shell]] [[Glossary of British ordnance terms#Common lyddite|Common lyddite shells]] were British explosive shells filled with [[Lyddite]] were initially designated "common lyddite" and beginning in 1896 were the first British generation of modern "high explosive" shells. Lyddite is [[picric acid]] fused at {{convert|280|°F|°C|abbr=on}} and allowed to solidify, producing a much denser dark-yellow form which is not affected by moisture and is easier to detonate than the liquid form. Its French equivalent was "melinite", Japanese equivalent was "shimose". Common lyddite shells "detonated" and fragmented into small pieces in all directions, with no incendiary effect. For maximum destructive effect the explosion needed to be delayed until the shell had penetrated its target. Early shells had walls of the same thickness for the whole length, later shells had walls thicker at the base and thinning towards the nose. This was found to give greater strength and provide more space for explosive.{{sfnp|Treatise on Ammunition|1915|pages=37, 158, 159, 198 }} Later shells had [[#C.R.H.|4 c.r. heads]], more pointed and hence streamlined than earlier 2 c.r.h. designs. Proper detonation of a lyddite shell would show black to grey smoke, or white from the steam of a water detonation. Yellow smoke indicated simple explosion rather than detonation, and failure to reliably detonate was a problem with lyddite, especially in its earlier usage. To improve the detonation "exploders" with a small quantity of picric powder or even of TNT (in smaller shells, 3 pdr, 12 pdr – 4.7 inch) was loaded between the fuze and the main lyddite filling or in a thin tube running through most of the shell's length. Lyddite presented a major safety problem because it reacted dangerously with metal bases. This required that the interior of shells had to be varnished, the exterior had to be painted with leadless paint and the fuze-hole had to be made of a leadless alloy. Fuzes containing any lead could not be used with it. When World War I began Britain was replacing lyddite with modern "high explosive" (HE) such as TNT. After World War I the term "common lyddite" was dropped, and remaining stocks of lyddite-filled shells were referred to as HE (high explosive) shell filled lyddite. Hence "common" faded from use, replaced by "HE" as the explosive shell designation. Common lyddite shells in British service were painted yellow, with a red ring behind the nose to indicate the shell had been filled. ====Mine shell==== {{Main|Mine shell}} The mine shell is a particular form of HE shell developed for use in small caliber weapons such as 20 mm to 30 mm cannon. Small HE shells of conventional design can contain only a limited amount of explosive. By using a thin-walled steel casing of high tensile strength, a larger explosive charge can be used. Most commonly the explosive charge also was a more expensive but higher-detonation-energy type. The ''mine shell'' concept was invented by the Germans in the Second World War primarily for use in aircraft guns intended to be fired at opposing aircraft. Mine shells produced relatively little damage due to fragments, but a much more powerful blast. The [[aluminium]] structures and skins of Second World War [[aircraft]] were readily damaged by this greater level of blast.
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