Editing Sunscreen (section)

== Environmental effects ==
Some sunscreen active ingredients have been shown to cause toxicity towards marine life and coral, resulting in bans in different states, countries and ecological areas.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Raffa RB, Pergolizzi JV, Taylor R, Kitzen JM | title = Sunscreen bans: Coral reefs and skin cancer | journal = Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics | volume = 44 | issue = 1 | pages = 134–139 | date = February 2019 | pmid = 30484882 | doi = 10.1111/jcpt.12778 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Downs_2016">{{cite journal | vauthors = Downs CA, Kramarsky-Winter E, Segal R, Fauth J, Knutson S, Bronstein O, Ciner FR, Jeger R, Lichtenfeld Y, Woodley CM, Pennington P, Cadenas K, Kushmaro A, Loya Y | display-authors = 6 | title = Toxicopathological Effects of the Sunscreen UV Filter, Oxybenzone (Benzophenone-3), on Coral Planulae and Cultured Primary Cells and Its Environmental Contamination in Hawaii and the U.S. Virgin Islands | journal = Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology | volume = 70 | issue = 2 | pages = 265–288 | date = February 2016 | pmid = 26487337 | doi = 10.1007/s00244-015-0227-7 | bibcode = 2016ArECT..70..265D | url = https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/13720 | url-status = live | access-date = April 2, 2023 | s2cid = 4243494 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230330135416/https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/13720 | archive-date = March 30, 2023 }}</ref> Coral reefs, comprising organisms in delicate ecological balances, are vulnerable to even minor environmental disturbances. Factors like temperature changes, invasive species, pollution, and detrimental fishing practices have previously been highlighted as threats to coral health.<ref>{{cite news | vauthors = Beitsch R |title=Some Sunscreens May Kill Corals. Should They Be Banned? |url=https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2019/03/07/some-sunscreens-may-kill-corals-should-they-be-banned |url-status=live |access-date=April 24, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190914204854/https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2019/03/07/some-sunscreens-may-kill-corals-should-they-be-banned |archive-date=September 14, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is coral bleaching? |url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral_bleach.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220021310/https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral_bleach.html |archive-date=December 20, 2020 |access-date=2019-04-07 |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |language=EN-US}}</ref>

In 2018, Hawaii passed legislation that prohibits the sale of sunscreens containing [[oxybenzone]] and [[octinoxate]]. In sufficient concentrations, oxybenzone and octinoxate can damage coral DNA, induce deformities in coral [[larva]]e,<ref name="Downs_2016" /> heighten the risk of viral infections, and make corals more vulnerable to bleaching. Such threats are even more concerning given that coral ecosystems are already compromised by climate change, pollution, and other environmental stressors. While there is ongoing debate regarding the real-world concentrations of these chemicals versus laboratory settings,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coral decline—is sunscreen a scapegoat? |url=https://phys.org/news/2021-02-coral-declineis-sunscreen-scapegoat.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027152919/https://phys.org/news/2021-02-coral-declineis-sunscreen-scapegoat.html |archive-date=October 27, 2021 |access-date=2021-10-27 |website=phys.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sirois J | title = Examine all available evidence before making decisions on sunscreen ingredient bans | journal = The Science of the Total Environment | volume = 674 | pages = 211–212 | date = July 2019 | pmid = 31004897 | doi = 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.04.137 | url = https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S004896971931664X | url-status = live | access-date = October 27, 2021 | bibcode = 2019ScTEn.674..211S | s2cid = 125082651 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220617160529/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S004896971931664X | archive-date = June 17, 2022 | url-access = subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=1 April 2019 |title=New study measures UV-filters in seawater and corals from Hawaii |url=https://www.umces.edu/content/new-study-measures-uv-filters-seawater-and-corals-hawaii |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217011800/https://www.umces.edu/content/new-study-measures-uv-filters-seawater-and-corals-hawaii |archive-date=December 17, 2019 |access-date=2019-06-20 |publisher=University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mitchelmore CL, He K, Gonsior M, Hain E, Heyes A, Clark C, Younger R, Schmitt-Kopplin P, Feerick A, Conway A, Blaney L | display-authors = 6 | title = Occurrence and distribution of UV-filters and other anthropogenic contaminants in coastal surface water, sediment, and coral tissue from Hawaii | journal = The Science of the Total Environment | volume = 670 | pages = 398–410 | date = June 2019 | pmid = 30904653 | doi = 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.034 | bibcode = 2019ScTEn.670..398M | s2cid = 85496503 }}</ref> an assessment in Kahaluu Bay in Hawaii showed oxybenzone concentrations to be 262 times higher than what the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency designates as high-risk. Another study in Hanauma Bay found levels of the chemical ranging from 30&nbsp;ng/L to 27,880&nbsp;ng/L, noting that concentrations beyond 63&nbsp;ng/L could induce toxicity in corals.<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Levine A | date = July 2020 |title=Sunscreen use and awareness of chemical toxicity among beach goers in Hawaii prior to a ban on the sale of sunscreens containing ingredients found to be toxic to coral reef ecosystems |journal=Marine Policy |volume=117 |pages=103875 |doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2020.103875 |s2cid=212872259 |issn=0308-597X|doi-access=free | bibcode = 2020MarPo.11703875L }}</ref>

Echoing Hawaii's initiative, other regions including Key West, Florida,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Schwartz |first=Matthew |date=February 6, 2019 |title=Key West To Ban Popular Sunscreen Ingredients To Protect Coral Reef |url=https://www.npr.org/2019/02/06/691913378/key-west-votes-to-ban-popular-sunscreen-ingredients-to-protect-coral-reef |access-date=2024-11-20 |work=[[npr]]}}</ref> the U.S. Virgin Islands,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Allen |first=Karma |date=June 27, 2019 |title=Lawmakers in US Virgin Islands approve bill banning certain sunscreen ingredients |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/lawmakers-us-virgin-islands-approve-bill-banning-sunscreen/story?id=63976078 |access-date=2024-11-20 |website=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] |language=en}}</ref> Bonaire, and Palau<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 November 2018 |title=Coral: Palau to ban sunscreen products to protect reefs |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-46046064 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201122223903/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-46046064 |archive-date=November 22, 2020 |access-date=January 2, 2020 |website=BBC News}}</ref> have also instituted bans on sunscreens containing oxybenzone and octinoxate.

The environmental implications of sunscreen usage on marine ecosystems are multi-faceted and vary in severity. In a 2015 study, titanium dioxide nanoparticles, when introduced to water and subjected to ultraviolet light, were shown to amplify the production of hydrogen peroxide, a compound known to damage phytoplankton.<ref name="San2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sánchez-Quiles D, Tovar-Sánchez A | title = Sunscreens as a source of hydrogen peroxide production in coastal waters | journal = Environmental Science & Technology | volume = 48 | issue = 16 | pages = 9037–9042 | date = August 2014 | pmid = 25069004 | doi = 10.1021/es5020696 | bibcode = 2014EnST...48.9037S | hdl-access = free | hdl = 10261/103567 }}</ref> In 2002, research indicated that sunscreens might escalate virus abundance in seawater, compromising the marine environment in a manner akin to other pollutants.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Danovaro R, Corinaldesi C | title = Sunscreen products increase virus production through prophage induction in marine bacterioplankton | journal = Microbial Ecology | volume = 45 | issue = 2 | pages = 109–118 | date = February 2003 | pmid = 12545312 | doi = 10.1007/s00248-002-1033-0 | bibcode = 2003MicEc..45..109D | s2cid = 11379801 }}</ref> Further probing the matter, a 2008 investigation examining a variety of sunscreen brands, protective factors, and concentrations revealed unanimous bleaching effects on hard corals. Alarmingly, the degree of bleaching magnified with increasing sunscreen quantities. When assessing individual compounds prevalent in sunscreens, substances such as butylparaben, ethylhexylmethoxycinnamate, benzophenone-3, and 4-methylbenzylidene camphor induced complete coral bleaching at even minimal concentrations.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Danovaro R, Bongiorni L, Corinaldesi C, Giovannelli D, Damiani E, Astolfi P, Greci L, Pusceddu A | display-authors = 6 | title = Sunscreens cause coral bleaching by promoting viral infections | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 116 | issue = 4 | pages = 441–447 | date = April 2008 | pmid = 18414624 | pmc = 2291018 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.10966 | bibcode = 2008EnvHP.116..441D }}</ref>

A 2020 study from the journal ''Current Dermatology Report'' summarized the situation as the US FDA currently approving only zinc oxide (ZnO) and titanium dioxide (TiO<sub>2</sub>) as safe ultraviolet filters, and for those concerned with coral bleaching, they should use non-nano ZnO or TiO<sub>2</sub> since they have the most consistent safety data.<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Adler BL, DeLeo VA |date=2020-03-01 |title=Sunscreen Safety: a Review of Recent Studies on Humans and the Environment |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s13671-020-00284-4 |journal=Current Dermatology Reports |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1007/s13671-020-00284-4 |s2cid=210671200 |issn=2162-4933|url-access=subscription }}</ref>