Editing Work design (section)

=== Contextual influences ===

* '''International''' – Organizations operate today under the influence of [[globalization]] and [[Free trade|market liberalization]].<ref name=":14" /> While there is little empirical work on the direct effects of these factors, some have argued that globalization has increased the perceived threat of competition and job insecurity, leading to increased expectations about working harder.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Idris|first1=Mohd Awang|last2=Dollard|first2=Maureen F.|last3=Winefield|first3=Anthony H.|date=November 2011|title=The Effect of Globalization on Employee Psychological Health and Job Satisfaction in Malaysian Workplaces|journal=Journal of Occupational Health|volume=53|issue=6|pages=447–454|doi=10.1539/joh.11-0035-fs|pmid=21952295|issn=1341-9145|doi-access=free}}</ref> Additionally, increased access to new suppliers in other countries, especially developing countries, has increased the potential for organizations to influence work design in these countries.<ref name=":14" /> Evidence has shown that cost pressures on suppliers are linked to poor work designs, such as high workloads and physical demands.<ref>{{Citation|title=Evolution of Supply Chain Management|date=2015-08-27|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1081/e-escm-120048060|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Supply Chain Management|pages=393–395|publisher=CRC Press|doi=10.1081/e-escm-120048060|isbn=978-1-4398-6152-3|access-date=2021-05-11}}</ref>
* '''National''' – Organizations are subject to the economic, cultural, and institutional context of the country they operate in.<ref name=":14" /> Work designs in economies with a relatively high GDP and low employment typically have lower workloads and higher job resources (e.g. autonomy, skill variety, challenge) due to higher investment in practices aimed at attracting and retaining employees.<ref name=":14" /> Additionally, some have argued that national culture shapes individual preferences for particular working conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Erez|first=Miriam|date=2010-01-22|title=Culture and job design|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/job.651|journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior|volume=31|issue=2–3|pages=389–400|doi=10.1002/job.651|issn=0894-3796}}</ref> For example, managers and employees from cultures with a preference for structure and formal rules might prefer work designs which are clearly defined.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cagliano|first1=Raffaella|last2=Caniato|first2=Federico|last3=Golini|first3=Ruggero|last4=Longoni|first4=Annachiara|last5=Micelotta|first5=Evelyn|date=2011-02-22|title=The impact of country culture on the adoption of new forms of work organization|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/01443571111111937|journal=International Journal of Operations & Production Management|volume=31|issue=3|pages=297–323|doi=10.1108/01443571111111937|hdl=11311/579511|issn=0144-3577|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Finally, national institutions such as [[trade union]]s, national employment policies, and training systems policies may have direct or indirect effects on work design.<ref name=":14" />
* '''Occupational''' – Occupations shape the distribution of tasks as well as the influence of skills used in completing those tasks, both of which are key to work design.<ref name=":14" /> Additionally, occupations tend to encourage and reinforce particular values, which may or may not be congruent with the values of individual workers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Morgeson|first1=Frederick P.|last2=Dierdorff|first2=Erich C.|last3=Hmurovic|first3=Jillian L.|date=2010-01-22|title=Work design in situ : Understanding the role of occupational and organizational context|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/job.642|journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior|volume=31|issue=2–3|pages=351–360|doi=10.1002/job.642|issn=0894-3796}}</ref> For example, occupations which value independence (e.g. police detectives) are likely to reward actions which demonstrate initiative and creativity, giving rise to job characteristics such as autonomy and variety.<ref name=":14" />
* '''Organizational''' – According to strategic human resource management theory (SHRM), a key task for managers is to adopt HR practices which are internally consistent with the strategic objectives of the organization.<ref name=":14" /> For example, if an organization's strategy is to gain competitive advantage by minimizing costs, managers may be motivated to adopt work designs based on [[scientific management]] (i.e. low training and induction costs to allow low-skill and low-paid workers to be employed).<ref name="1947- 2004">{{Cite book|author=Porter, Michael E.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/76881628|title=Competitive advantage : creating and sustaining superior performance|date=2004|publisher=Free Press|isbn=0-7432-6087-2|oclc=76881628}}</ref> In contrast, managers working for an organization that aims to gain competitive advantage through quality and innovation may be motivated to provide employees with opportunities to use specialist knowledge and skills, resulting in enriched work designs.<ref name="1947- 2004"/>
* '''Work groups''' – Drawing on the [[Sociotechnical system|sociotechnical theory]] and [[team effectiveness]] literature, some authors argue that key characteristics of work groups (i.e. composition, interdependence, autonomy, and leadership) can influence the work design of individual team members, although it is acknowledged that evidence on this particular topic is limited.<ref name=":14" />