Editing Animal testing (section)

===Applied research===
Applied research aims to solve specific and practical problems. These may involve the use of [[animal model]]s of diseases or conditions, which are often discovered or generated by pure research programmes. In turn, such applied studies may be an early stage in the [[drug discovery]] process. Examples include:
* [[Genetic modification]] of animals to study disease. [[Genetically modified animal|Transgenic animals]] have specific genes inserted, modified or removed, to mimic specific conditions such as [[single gene disorders]], such as [[Huntington's disease]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ramaswamy S, McBride JL, Kordower JH | title = Animal models of Huntington's disease | journal = ILAR Journal | volume = 48 | issue = 4 | pages = 356–73 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17712222 | doi = 10.1093/ilar.48.4.356 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Other models mimic complex, multifactorial diseases with genetic components, such as [[Diabetes mellitus|diabetes]],<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Rees DA, Alcolado JC | title = Animal models of diabetes mellitus | journal = Diabetic Medicine | volume = 22 | issue = 4 | pages = 359–70 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15787657 | doi = 10.1111/j.1464-5491.2005.01499.x | doi-access = free }}</ref> or even transgenic mice that carry the same mutations that occur during the development of [[cancer]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Iwakuma T, Lozano G | title = Crippling p53 activities via knock-in mutations in mouse models | journal = Oncogene | volume = 26 | issue = 15 | pages = 2177–84 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17401426 | doi = 10.1038/sj.onc.1210278 | doi-access = free }}</ref> These models allow investigations on how and why the disease develops, as well as providing ways to develop and test new treatments.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Frese KK, Tuveson DA | title = Maximizing mouse cancer models | journal = Nature Reviews Cancer | volume = 7 | issue = 9 | pages = 645–58 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17687385 | doi = 10.1038/nrc2192 | s2cid = 6490409 }}</ref> The vast majority of these transgenic models of human disease are lines of mice, the mammalian species in which genetic modification is most efficient.<ref name=Rosenthal/> Smaller numbers of other animals are also used, including rats, pigs, sheep, fish, birds, and amphibians.<ref name=HOStats/>
* Studies on models of naturally occurring disease and condition. Certain domestic and wild animals have a natural propensity or predisposition for certain conditions that are also found in humans. Cats are used as a model to develop immunodeficiency virus vaccines and to study [[leukemia]] because their natural predisposition to [[FIV]] and [[Feline leukemia virus]].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Dunham SP | title = Lessons from the cat: development of vaccines against lentiviruses | journal = Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology | volume = 112 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 67–77 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16678276 | doi = 10.1016/j.vetimm.2006.03.013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Vail DM, MacEwen EG | title = Spontaneously occurring tumors of companion animals as models for human cancer | journal = Cancer Investigation | volume = 18 | issue = 8 | pages = 781–92 | year = 2000 | pmid = 11107448 | doi = 10.3109/07357900009012210 | s2cid = 32489790 }}</ref> Certain breeds of dog experience [[narcolepsy]] making them the major model used to study the human condition. [[Armadillo]]s and humans are among only a few animal species that naturally have [[leprosy]]; as the bacteria responsible for this disease cannot yet be grown in culture, armadillos are the primary source of [[bacilli]] used in leprosy vaccines.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
* Studies on induced animal models of human diseases. Here, an animal is treated so that it develops [[pathology]] and symptoms that resemble a human disease. Examples include restricting blood flow to the brain to induce [[stroke]], or giving [[neurotoxin]]s that cause damage similar to that seen in [[Parkinson's disease]].<ref name=Tolwani/> Much animal research into potential treatments for humans is wasted because it is poorly conducted and not evaluated through systematic reviews.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pound P, Ebrahim S, Sandercock P, Bracken MB, Roberts I | title = Where is the evidence that animal research benefits humans? | journal = BMJ | volume = 328 | issue = 7438 | pages = 514–47 | year = 2004 | pmid = 14988196 | pmc = 351856 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.328.7438.514 | others = Reviewing Animal Trials Systematically (RATS) Group }}</ref> For example, although such models are now widely used to study Parkinson's disease, the British anti-vivisection interest group [[British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection|BUAV]] argues that these models only superficially resemble the disease symptoms, without the same time course or cellular pathology.<ref>Langley, Gill (2006) [http://www.buav.org/downloads/pdf/BUAV_Report-Next_of_Kin.pdf ''next of kin...A report on the use of primates in experiments''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227041454/http://www.buav.org/downloads/pdf/BUAV_Report-Next_of_Kin.pdf |date=27 February 2008 }}, BUAV.</ref> In contrast, scientists assessing the usefulness of [[animal models of Parkinson's disease]], as well as the medical research charity ''The Parkinson's Appeal'', state that these models were invaluable and that they led to improved surgical treatments such as [[pallidotomy]], new drug treatments such as [[levodopa]], and later [[deep brain stimulation]].<ref name=Emborg>{{cite journal | author = Emborg ME | title = Nonhuman primate models of Parkinson's disease | journal = ILAR Journal | volume = 48 | issue = 4 | pages = 339–55 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17712221 | doi = 10.1093/ilar.48.4.339 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name=Tolwani>{{cite journal |vauthors=Tolwani RJ, Jakowec MW, Petzinger GM, Green S, Waggie K | title = Experimental models of Parkinson's disease: insights from many models | journal = Laboratory Animal Science | volume = 49 | issue = 4 | pages = 363–71 | year = 1999 | pmid = 10480640 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.parkinsonsappeal.com/pdfs/The%20History%20of%20Deep%20Brain%20Stimulation.pdf The History of Deep Brain Stimulation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331165911/http://www.parkinsonsappeal.com/pdfs/The%20History%20of%20Deep%20Brain%20Stimulation.pdf |date=31 March 2017 }}. parkinsonsappeal.com</ref>
* Animal testing has also included the use of [[placebo]] testing. In these cases animals are treated with a substance that produces no pharmacological effect, but is administered in order to determine any biological alterations due to the experience of a substance being administered, and the results are compared with those obtained with an active compound.

====Xenotransplantation====
{{Main|Xenotransplantation}}
[[Xenotransplantation]] research involves transplanting tissues or organs from one species to another, as a way to overcome the shortage of human organs for use in [[organ transplant]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Platt JL, Lin SS | title = The future promises of xenotransplantation | journal = Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences | volume = 862 | issue = 1 | pages = 5–18 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9928201 | doi = 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1998.tb09112.x | bibcode = 1998NYASA.862....5P | s2cid = 72941995 }}</ref> Current research involves using primates as the recipients of organs from pigs that have been genetically modified to reduce the primates' [[immune system|immune response]] against the pig tissue.<ref name=Schuurman>{{cite journal |vauthors=Schuurman HJ, Pierson RN | title = Progress towards clinical xenotransplantation | journal = Frontiers in Bioscience | volume = 13 | issue = 13 | pages = 204–20 | year = 2008 | pmid = 17981539 | doi = 10.2741/2671 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Although [[transplant rejection]] remains a problem,<ref name=Schuurman/> recent clinical trials that involved implanting pig insulin-secreting cells into diabetics did reduce these people's need for insulin.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Valdés-González RA, Dorantes LM, Garibay GN, Bracho-Blanchet E, Mendez AJ, Dávila-Pérez R, Elliott RB, Terán L, White DJ | title = Xenotransplantation of porcine neonatal islets of Langerhans and Sertoli cells: a 4-year study | journal = European Journal of Endocrinology | volume = 153 | issue = 3 | pages = 419–27 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16131605 | doi = 10.1530/eje.1.01982 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Valdés-González RA, White DJ, Dorantes LM, Terán L, Garibay-Nieto GN, Bracho-Blanchet E, Dávila-Pérez R, Evia-Viscarra L, Ormsby CE, Ayala-Sumuano JT, Silva-Torres ML, Ramírez-González B | title = Three-yr follow-up of a type 1 diabetes mellitus patient with an islet xenotransplant | journal = Clinical Transplantation | volume = 21 | issue = 3 | pages = 352–57 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17488384 | doi = 10.1111/j.1399-0012.2007.00648.x | s2cid = 22668776 }}</ref>

Documents released to the news media by the animal rights organization [[Uncaged Campaigns]] showed that, between 1994 and 2000, wild baboons imported to the UK from Africa by Imutran Ltd, a subsidiary of [[Novartis]] Pharma AG, in conjunction with Cambridge University and [[Huntingdon Life Sciences]], to be used in experiments that involved grafting pig tissues, had serious and sometimes fatal injuries. A scandal occurred when it was revealed that the company had communicated with the British government in an attempt to avoid regulation.<ref name=autogenerated2>Townsend, Mark (20 April 2003). [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,940033,00.html "Exposed: secrets of the animal organ lab"]  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706041140/http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0%2C6903%2C940033%2C00.html |date=6 July 2008 }}, ''The Guardian''.</ref><ref>Curtis, Polly (11 July 2003). [https://www.theguardian.com/education/2003/jul/11/research.highereducation "Home Office under renewed fire in animal rights row"], ''The Guardian''.</ref>