Editing Grammatical aspect (section)

===Austronesian languages===

==== Reo Rapa ====
{{main|Rapa language}}
The [[Rapa language]] (Reo Rapa) is a mixed language that grew out of [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]] and Old Rapa among monolingual inhabitants of [[Rapa Iti]]. Old Rapa words are still used for grammar and sentence structure, but most common words were replaced by [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]] words.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Walworth|first=Mary|year=2017|title=Reo Rapa: A Polynesian Contact Language Contact|journal=Journal of Language|pages=119}}</ref> Rapa is similar to [[English language|English]] as they both have specific tense words such as ''did'' or ''do''.

*'''Past negative''': ''ki’ere'' /kiʔere/ <ref name=":0" />
{{interlinear|indent=2|
|'''ki’ere''' vau i haere i te fare
|NEG.PST 1.SG PFV go PREP ART house
|'I did not go to a house.'
}}

*'''Non-past negative''' (Regular negative) ''kāre'' /kaːre/ <ref name=":0" />
{{interlinear|indent=2|
|'''kāre''' tā-koe puta
|NEG.NPST ART-2SG book
|'You don't have your book.' (''Lit.'' 'Your book doesn't exist')
}}

====Hawaiian====
The [[Hawaiian language]] conveys aspect as follows:<ref>[[Östen Dahl]], ''Tense and Aspect Systems'', Blackwell, 1985: ch. 6.</ref><ref>Schütz, Albert J., ''All about Hawaiian'', Univ. of Hawaii Press, 1995: pp. 23–25.</ref><ref>Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H., ''New Pocket Hawaiian Dictionary'', Univ. of Hawaii Press, 1992: pp. 228–231.</ref>

*The unmarked verb, frequently used, can indicate habitual aspect or perfective aspect in the past.
*''ke'' + verb + ''nei'' is frequently used and conveys the progressive aspect in the present.
*''e'' + verb + ''ana'' conveys the progressive aspect in any tense.
*''ua'' + verb conveys the perfective aspect but is frequently omitted.

====Wuvulu====
{{main|Wuvulu-Aua language}}
Wuvulu language is a minority language in Pacific. The Wuvulu verbal aspect is hard to organize because of its number of morpheme combinations and the interaction of semantics between morphemes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Hafford|first=James|year=2015|title=Verb Morphology|journal=Wuvulu Grammar and Vocabulary|pages=91}}</ref> Perfective, imperfective negation, simultaneous and habitual are four aspects markers in Wuvulu language.

* '''Perfective''': The perfective marker ''-li'' indicates the action is done before other action. 
{{interlinear|indent=2|
|maʔua ʔi{{=}}na-'''li'''-ware-fa-rawani ʔaʔa roʔou, Barafi
|but 3SG{{=}}REAL-PERF-talk-CAUS-good with them Barafi
|'But, Barafi had already clearly told them.'
}} <ref name=":1" />

* '''Imperfect negation''': The marker ''ta-'' indicates the action has not done and also doesn't show anything about the action will be done in the future. 
{{interlinear|indent=2|
|ʔi{{=}}ta-no-mai
|3SG{{=}}not.yet-move-{{gcl|DIR|directional}}
|'It has not yet come.'
}}<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Hafford|first=James|year=2015|title=Verb Morphology|journal=Wuvulu Grammar and Vocabulary|pages=92}}</ref>

* '''Simultaneous''': The marker ''fi'' indicates the two actions are done at the same time or one action occurs while other action is in progress.
{{interlinear|indent=2|
|ʔi{{=}}na-panaro-puluʔi-na ruapalo ʔei pani Puleafo ma ʔi{{=}}fi-unu
|3SG{{=}}REAL-hold-together-TR two the.PL hand Puleafo and 3SG{{=}}{{gcl|SIM|simultaneous}}-drink 
|'He held together the two hands of Puleafo while drinking.' (Note: marker ''ta-'' is only for singular subject. When the subject is dual or plural, the marker ''ʔei'' and ''i-'' are used in same situation.) <ref name=":2" />
}}

* '''Habitual''': The marker fane- can indicate a habitual activity, which means "keep doing something" in English. Example: 
{{interlinear|indent=2|
|ʔi{{=}}na-fane-naranara fei nara Faninilo ba, ʔaleʔena ba ini liai mei ramaʔa mei
|3SG{{=}}REAL-HAB-think(REDUP) the thought Faninilo COMP like COMP who again the person the 
|'And the thought kept occurring to Faninilo, "who is this particular person?"' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hafford|first=James|year=2015|title=Verb Morphology|journal=Wuvulu Grammar and Vocabulary|pages=93}}</ref>
}}

====Tokelauan====
{{main|Tokelauan language}}
There are three types of aspects one must consider when analyzing the Tokelauan language: inherent aspect, situation aspect, and viewpoint aspect.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Studies in Tokelauan syntax|last=Hooper|first=Robin|publisher=University Microfilms International|year=1994|location=Ann Arbor, Michigan|pages=137–143}}</ref>

The inherent aspect describes the purpose of a verb and what separates verbs from one another. According to Vendler, inherent aspect can be categorized into four different types: activities, achievements, accomplishments, and states. Simple activities include verbs such as pull, jump, and punch. Some achievements are continue and win. Drive-a-car is an accomplishment while hate is an example of a state. Another way to recognize a state inherent aspect is to note whether or not it changes. For example, if someone were to hate vegetables because they are allergic, this state of hate is unchanging and thus, a state inherent aspect. On the other hand, an achievement, unlike a state, only lasts for a short amount of time. Achievement is the highpoint of an action.<ref name=":0" />

Another type of aspect is situation aspect. Situation aspect is described to be what one is experiencing in his or her life through that circumstance. Therefore, it is his or her understanding of the situation. Situation aspect are abstract terms that are not physically tangible. They are also used based upon one's point of view. For example, a professor may say that a student who comes a minute before each class starts is a punctual student. Based upon the professor's judgment of what punctuality is, he or she may make that assumption of the situation with the student. Situation aspect is firstly divided into states and occurrences, then later subdivided under occurrences into processes and events, and lastly, under events, there are accomplishments and achievements.<ref name=":0" />

The third type of aspect is viewpoint aspect. Viewpoint aspect can be likened to situation aspect such that they both take into consideration one's inferences. However, viewpoint aspect diverges from situation aspect because it is where one decides to view or see such event. A perfect example is the glass metaphor: [[Is the glass half empty or half full?|Is the glass half full or is it half empty]]. The choice of being half full represents an optimistic viewpoint while the choice of being half empty represents a pessimistic viewpoint. Not only does viewpoint aspect separate into negative and positive, but rather different point of views. Having two people describe a painting can bring about two different viewpoints. One may describe a situation aspect as a perfect or imperfect. A perfect situation aspect entails an event with no reference to time, while an imperfect situation aspect makes a reference to time with the observation.<ref name=":0" />

==== Torau ====
Aspect in Torau is marked with post-verbal particles or clitics. While the system for marking the imperfective aspect is complex and highly developed, it is unclear if Torau marks the perfective and neutral viewpoints. The imperfective clitics index one of the core arguments, usually the nominative subject, and follow the rightmost element in a syntactic structure larger than the word. The two distinct forms for marking the imperfective aspect are ''(i)sa-'' and ''e-''. While more work needs to be done on this language, the preliminary hypothesis is that ''(i)sa-'' encodes the stative imperfective and ''e-'' encodes the active imperfective. Reduplication always cooccurs with ''e-'', but it usually does not with ''(i)sa-.'' This example below shows these two imperfective aspect markers giving different meanings to similar sentences.

{{interlinear
| indent = 2|Pita ma-to mate{{=}}'''sa-la'''.|Peter REAL.3SG.SUBJ-PST be.dead{{=}}IPFV-3SG|'Peter was dead.'
}}

{{interlinear
| indent = 2|Pita ma-to '''maa'''≈mate{{=}}'''e-la'''.|Peter REAL.3SG.SUBJ-PST {REDUP}≈be.dead{{=}}IPFV-3SG|'Peter was dying.'
}}

In Torau, the suffix -''to'', which must attach to a preverbal particle, may indicate similar meaning to the perfective aspect. In realis clauses, this suffix conveys an event that is entirely in the past and no longer occurring. When ''-to'' is used in irrealis clauses, the speaker conveys that the event will definitely occur (Palmer, 2007). Although this suffix is not explicitly stated as a perfective viewpoint marker, the meaning that it contributes is very similar to the perfective viewpoint.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Palmer|first=Bill|date=December 2007|title=Imperfective Aspect and the Interplay of Aspect, Tense, and Modality in Torau|journal=Oceanic Linguistics|volume=46|issue=2|pages=499–519|doi=10.1353/ol.2008.0000|jstor=20172325|hdl=1959.13/803129|s2cid=145227019|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

====Malay/Indonesian====
{{main|Malay grammar}}
Like many [[Austronesian languages]], the verbs of the [[Malay language]] follow a system of affixes to express changes in meaning. To express the aspects, Malay uses a number of [[auxiliary verbs]]:

:*''sudah'': [[perfective aspect|perfective]], 'saya sudah makan' = 'I have [already] eaten'
:*''baru'': near perfective, 'saya baru makan' = 'I have just eaten'
:*''belum'': [[imperfective aspect|imperfective]], 'saya belum makan' = 'I have not eaten'
:*''sedang'': [[Continuous and progressive aspects|progressive]] not implicating an end
:*''masih'': progressive implicating an end
:*''pernah'': [[semelfactive]]

====Philippine languages====
{{main|Tagalog grammar#Verbs}}

Like many [[Austronesian languages]], the verbs of the [[Philippine languages]] follow a complex system of affixes to express subtle changes in meaning. However, the verbs in this family of languages are conjugated to express the aspects and not the tenses. Though many of the [[Philippine languages]] do not have a fully codified grammar, most of them follow the verb aspects that are demonstrated by [[Filipino language|Filipino]] or [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]].