Editing July Monarchy (section)

==Evolution towards parliamentarianism (1835–1840)==
The [[polemics]] which led to [[Marshal Mortier|Marshal {{lang|fr|Mortier|italic=no|nocat=yes}}]]'s resignation, fueled by monarchists such as Baron {{lang|fr|Massias|italic=no}} and the [[Pierre-Louis Roederer|Count of {{lang|fr|Roederer|italic=no|nocat=yes}}]], all turned around the question of parliamentary prerogative. On the one hand, {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}} wanted to be able to follow his own policy, in particular in "reserved domains" such as military affairs or [[foreign relations of France|diplomacy]]. As the head of state, he also wanted to be able to lead the government, if need be by bypassing the President of the Council. On the other hand, a number of the deputies stated that the ministers needed a leader commanding a parliamentary majority, and thus wanted to continue the evolution towards [[parliamentarism]] which had only been sketched out in the [[Charter of 1830]]. The Charter did not include any mechanism for the political accountability of ministers towards the Chamber ([[confidence motion]]s or for [[censorship motion]]s). Furthermore, the function of the President of the Council itself was not even set out in the Charter.

=== The {{lang|fr|Broglie|italic=no}} ministry (March 1835 – February 1836) ===
In this context, the deputies decided to support {{lang|fr|[[Victor de Broglie (1785-1870)|Victor de Broglie]]|italic=no}} as head of the government, mainly because he was the king's least preferred choice, as {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}} disliked both his anglophilia and his independence. After a three-week ministerial crisis, during which the "Citizen King" successively called on [[Louis-Mathieu Molé|Count {{lang|fr|Molé|italic=no|nocat=yes}}]], {{lang|fr|André Dupin|italic=no}}, Marshal {{lang|fr|Soult|italic=no|nocat=y}}, [[General Sébastiani|General {{lang|fr|Sébastiani|italic=no|nocat=y}}]] and {{lang|fr|Gérard|italic=no}}, he was finally forced to rely on the {{lang|fr|duc de Broglie|italic=no}} and to accept his conditions, which were close to those imposed before by {{lang|fr|Casimir Périer|italic=no}}.

As in the first {{lang|fr|Soult|italic=no}} government, the new cabinet rested on the triumvirate of {{lang|fr|Broglie|italic=no}} (Foreign affairs), {{lang|fr|Guizot|italic=no}} (Public instruction), and {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}} (Interior). {{lang|fr|Broglie|italic=no}}'s first act was to take a personal revenge on the Chamber by having it ratify (by 289 votes against 137) the 4 July 1831 treaty with the United States, something which the deputies had refused him in 1834. He also obtained a large majority on the debate over the secret funds, which worked as an unofficial motion of confidence (256 voices against 129).

==== Trial of the April insurgents ====
{{lang|fr|Broglie|italic=no}}'s most important task was the trial of the April insurgents, which began on 5 May 1835 before the Chamber of Peers. The Peers finally convicted only 164 detainees on the 2,000 prisoners, of whom 43 were judged {{lang|la|[[trial in absentia|in absentia]]}}. Those defendants who were present for their trial introduced a great many procedural delays, and attempted by all means to transform the trial into a platform for [[Republicanism]]. On 12 July 1835, some of them, including the main leaders of the Parisian insurrection, escaped from the [[Prison of Sainte-Pélagie|Prison of {{lang|fr|Sainte-Pélagie|italic=no|nocat=yes}}]] through a tunnel. The Court of Peers delivered its sentence on the insurgents of Lyon on 13 August 1835, and on the other defendants in December 1835 and January 1836. The sentences were rather mild: a few condemnations to [[deportation]], many short prison sentences and some acquittals.

==== The {{lang|it|Fieschi|italic=no}} {{lang|fr|attentat}} (28 July 1835) ====
[[File:Attentat de Fieschi - 28.07.1835 - 2 (Eugène Lami).jpg|thumb|350px|''{{lang|fr|Attentat de Fieschi|italic=unset}}, on 28 July 1835''. By {{lang|fr|[[Eugène Lami]]|italic=no}}, 1845. {{lang|fr|[[Château de Versailles]]|italic=no}}.]]
[[File:Machine infernale.JPG|thumb|The weapon built and used by {{lang|it|Fieschi|italic=no}}, [[Musée des Archives Nationales]] (2012)]]
Against their hopes, the trial finally turned to the Republicans' disadvantage, by giving them a radical image which reminded the public opinion of the excesses of [[Jacobinism]] and frightened the bourgeois. The [[Giuseppe Marco Fieschi#Attempted assassination of Louis Philippe I|{{lang|it|Fieschi|italic=no|nocat=y}} {{lang|fr|attentat|nocat=y}}]] of July 1835, which took place on Paris during a review of the National Guard by {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}} for the commemorations of the July Revolution, further scared the notables.

On the {{lang|fr|[[Boulevard du Temple]]|italic=no}}, near the {{lang|fr|[[Place de la République]]|italic=no}}, a [[volley gun]] composed of 25 gun barrels mounted on a wooden frame was fired on the king from the upstairs window of a house. The King was only slightly injured, while his sons, Ferdinand Philippe, Duke of Orléans, [[Prince Louis, Duke of Nemours]] and {{lang|fr|[[François d'Orléans, prince de Joinville]]|italic=no}}, escaped unharmed. However, Marshal Mortier and ten other persons were killed, while tens were injured (among which seven died in the following days).

The conspirators, the adventurer {{lang|it|[[Giuseppe Fieschi]]|italic=no}} and two Republicans ({{lang|fr|Pierre Morey|italic=no}} and {{lang|fr|Théodore Pépin|italic=no}}) members of the [[Society of Human Rights]], were arrested in September 1835. Judged before the Court of Peers, they were [[capital punishment in France|sentenced to death]] and [[guillotine]]d on 19 February 1836.

==== The September laws ====
The Fieschi assassination attempt shocked the bourgeoisie and most of France, which was generally more conservative than the people of Paris. The Republicans were discredited in the country, and public opinion was ready for strong measures against them.

The first law reinforced the powers of the president of the {{lang|fr|[[Cour d'assises]]}} and of the [[public prosecutor]] against those accused of rebellion, possession of prohibited weapons or attempted insurrection. It was adopted on 13 August 1835, by 212 votes to 72.

The second law reformed the procedure before the juries of the Assizes. The existing 4 March 1831 law confined the determination of guilt or innocence to the juries, excluding the professional magistrates belonging to the {{lang|fr|Cour d'assises}}, and required a 2/3 majority (8 votes to 4) for a guilty verdict. The new law changed that to a simple majority (7 against 5), and was adopted on 20 August 1835 by 224 votes to 149.

The third law restricted [[freedom of press (France)|freedom of press]], and provoked passionate debates. It aimed at outlawing discussions concerning the king, the dynasty and constitutional monarchy, as it was alleged that these had prepared the ground for Fieschi's attempt. Despite a strong opposition to the draft, the law was approved on 29 August 1835 by 226 votes to 153.

==== The final consolidation of the regime ====
These three laws were simultaneously promulgated on 9 September 1835, and marked the final success of the policy of {{lang|fr|Résistance}} pursued against the Republicans since Casimir Périer. The July Monarchy was thereafter sure of its ground, with discussions concerning its legitimacy being completely outlawed. The Opposition could now only discuss the interpretation of the Charter and advocate an evolution towards parliamentarianism. Demands for the enlargement of the electoral base became more frequent, however, in 1840, leading to the re-appearance of Republican Opposition through the claim to [[universal suffrage]].

The {{lang|fr|Broglie|italic=no}} ministry, however, finally fell on a question concerning the [[public debt]]. The Minister of Finance, {{lang|fr|[[Georges Humann]]|italic=no}}, announced on 14 January 1836 his intention to reduce the interest on government bonds in order to lighten the public debt, a very unpopular measure among the supporters of the regime, since bond interest was a fundamental component of the bourgeoisie's wealth. Therefore, the Council of Ministers immediately disavowed {{lang|fr|Humann|italic=no}}, while the Duke {{lang|fr|de Broglie|italic=no}} explained to the Chamber that his proposal was not supported by the government. However, his tone was judged insulting by the deputies, and one of them, the banker {{lang|fr|[[Alexandre Goüin]]|italic=no}}, immediately proposed a draft law concerning bonds himself. On 5 February 1836, a narrow majority of deputies (194 against 192) decided to continue the examination of the draft, thus disavowing {{lang|fr|Broglie|italic=no}}'s cabinet. The government immediately resigned: for the first time, a cabinet had fallen after having been put in a minority before the Chamber of Deputies, a sure victory of parliamentarianism.

=== The first {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}} government (February – September 1836) ===
Louis-Philippe then decided to pretend to play the parliamentary card, with the secret intention of neutralizing it. He took advantage of the ministerial crisis to get rid of the {{lang|fr|[[Doctrinaires]]}} ({{lang|fr|Broglie|italic=no}} and {{lang|fr|Guizot|italic=no}}), invited some {{lang|fr|Tiers-Parti}} politicians to give an illusion of an opening to the Left, and finally called on {{lang|fr|[[Adolphe Thiers]]|italic=no}} on 22 February 1836, in an attempt to convince him to distance himself from the liberal Doctrinaires, and also to use up his legitimacy in government, until the time came to call on Count {{lang|fr|Molé|italic=no|nocat=y}}, whom the king had decided a long time before to make his President of the Council. {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}} thus separated the center-right from the center-left, strategically attempting to dissolve the {{lang|fr|Tiers-Parti}}, a dangerous game since this could also lead to the dissolving of the parliamentary majority itself and create endless ministerial crises. Furthermore, as the {{lang|fr|duc de Broglie|italic=no}} himself warned him, when {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}} was eventually pushed out, he would shift decisively to the Left and transform himself in a particularly dangerous opponent.

In the Chamber, the debate on the secret funds, marked by a notable speech by {{lang|fr|Guizot|italic=no}} and an evasive response by the Justice Minister, {{lang|fr|Sauzet|italic=no}}, was concluded with a favorable vote for the government (251 votes to 99). On the other hand, the draft proposal on government bonds was easily postponed by the deputies on 22 March 1836, another sign that it had been only a pretext.

Thiers' motivations for accepting the position of head of the government and taking the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as well were to enable him to negotiate the Duke of Orléans's wedding with an Austrian archduchess. Since the {{lang|it|Fieschi|italic=no}} attempt, {{lang|fr|Ferdinand-Philippe|italic=no}}'s wedding (he had just reached 25) had become an obsession of the king, and {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}} wanted to effect a spectacular reversion of alliances in Europe, as {{lang|fr|[[Étienne François, duc de Choiseul|Choiseul]]|italic=no}} had done before him. But [[Metternich]] and the archduchess [[Sophie of Bavaria]], who dominated the court in Vienna, rejected an alliance with the House of Orléans, which they deemed too unstable.

Another assassination attempt against {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}}, by {{lang|fr|Louis Alibaud|italic=no}} on 25 June 1836, justified their fears. These two setbacks upset {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}}. On 29 July 1836, the inauguration of the {{lang|fr|Arc de Triomphe|italic=no}}, intended to be the scene of a ceremony of national concord, during which the July Monarchy would harness the glory of the [[French Revolution|Revolution]] and of the [[First French Empire|Empire]], finally took place, quietly and unceremoniously, at seven in the morning and without the king being present.

To re-establish his popularity and in order to take his revenge on Austria, {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}} was considering a military intervention in Spain, requested by the Queen Regent {{lang|fr|[[Marie Christine de Bourbon]]|italic=no}} who was confronted by the [[First Carlist War|Carlist rebellion]]. But {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}}, advised by {{lang|fr|[[Talleyrand]]|italic=no}} and {{lang|fr|Soult|italic=no}}, strongly opposed the intervention, which led to Thiers's resignation. This new event, in which the government had fallen not because of parliament but because of a disagreement with the king on foreign policy, demonstrated that the evolution towards parliamentarianism was far from being assured.

=== The two {{lang|fr|Molé|italic=no}} governments (September 1836 – March 1839) ===
[[File:Premiere messe en kabylie horace vernet.jpg|thumb|First mass in [[Kabylie]] during the [[French conquest of Algeria]], 1837]]
[[Louis-Mathieu Molé|Count {{lang|fr|Molé|italic=no|nocat=y}}]] formed a new government on 6 September 1836, including the {{lang|fr|Doctrinaires}} {{lang|fr|Guizot|italic=no}}, {{lang|fr|[[Tanneguy Duchâtel]]|italic=no}} and {{lang|fr|[[Adrien de Gasparin]]|italic=no}}. This new cabinet did not include any veterans of the July Revolution, something the press immediately highlighted. {{lang|fr|Molé|italic=no}} immediately took some humane measures in order to assure his popularity: the general adoption of small [[prison cell]]s to avoid "mutual teaching of crime", abolition of [[chain gang]]s exposed to the public, and a royal [[pardon]] for 52 political prisoners (Legitimists and Republicans), in particular for Charles X' former ministers. On 25 October 1836, the inauguration of the [[Luxor Obelisk|Obelisk of Luxor]] (a gift from the [[Wali (administrative title)|Wali]] of Egypt, [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]]) on the {{lang|fr|[[Place de la Concorde]]|italic=no}} was the scene of a public ovation for the King.

==== 1836 Bonapartist uprising ====
On 30 October 1836, {{lang|fr|[[Napoleon III of France|Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte]]|italic=no}} attempted an uprising in [[Strasbourg]], which was quickly put down and the Bonapartist prince and his accomplices were arrested on the same day. The king, wanting to avoid a public trial, and without legal proceedings, ordered that {{lang|fr|Louis-Napoléon|italic=no}} be taken to {{lang|fr|[[Lorient]]|italic=no}} where he was put on board the frigate {{lang|fr|L'Andromède}}, which sailed for the United States on 21 November. The other conspirators were brought before the {{lang|fr|Cour d'assises}} of Strasbourg, which acquitted them on 18 January 1837.

==== {{lang|fr|Loi de disjonction}} ====
Thereafter, on 24 January 1837, the Minister of War, [[Simon Bernard|General {{lang|fr|Simon Bernard|italic=no|nocat=y}}]], proposed a draft law – {{lang|fr|loi de disjonction}} – aimed, in case of insurrection, at separating civilians, who would be judged by the {{lang|fr|[[Cour d'assises]]}}, and non-civilians, who would be judged by a [[war council]]. The opposition adamantly rejected the proposal, and surprisingly managed to have the whole Chamber reject it, on 7 March 1837, by a very slim majority of 211 votes to 209.

However, {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}} decided to go against public expectation, and the logic of parliamentarianism, by maintaining the {{lang|fr|Molé|italic=no}} government in place. But the government was deprived of any solid parliamentary majority, and thus paralyzed. For a month and a half, the king tried various ministerial combinations before forming a new government which included {{lang|fr|[[Camille de Montalivet]]|italic=no}}, who was close to him, but which excluded {{lang|fr|Guizot|italic=no}}, who had more and more difficulty working with {{lang|fr|Molé|italic=no}}, who was once again confirmed as head of the government.

This new government was almost a provocation for the Chamber: not only was Molé retained, but {{lang|fr|[[Narcisse-Achille de Salvandy|de Salvandy]]|italic=no}}, who had been in charge of the {{lang|fr|loi de disjonction}}, and {{lang|fr|[[Jean Lacave-Laplagne|Lacave-Laplagne]]|italic=no}}, in charge of a draft law concerning the Belgian Queen's [[dowry]] – both having been rejected by the deputies – were also members of the new cabinet. The press spoke of a "Cabinet of the castle" or "Cabinet of lackeys", and all expected it to be short-lived.

==== The wedding of the Duke of Orléans ====
However, in his first speech, on 18 April 1837, {{lang|fr|Molé|italic=no}} cut short his critics with the announcement of the future wedding of Ferdinand Philippe, Duke of Orléans (styled as the {{lang|fr|Prince Royal}}) with the [[Duchess Helene of Mecklenburg-Schwerin]]. Taken by surprise, the deputies voted for the increase of the dowry of both the Duke of Orléans, which had been previously rejected, and the [[Louise d'Orléans (1812–1850)|Queen of the Belgians]].

After this promising beginning, in May {{lang|fr|Molé|italic=no}}'s government managed to secure Parliament's confidence during the debate on the secret funds, despite {{lang|fr|Odilon Barrot|italic=no}}'s attacks (250 votes to 112). An 8 May 1837 ordinance granted general amnesty to all political prisoners, while crucifixes were re-established in the courts, and the [[Church of Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois|Church of {{lang|fr|Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois|italic=no|nocat=y}}]], closed since 1831, was authorized to renew religious activities. To demonstrate that public order had been restored, the king passed reviewed the National Guard on the {{lang|fr|Place de la Concorde|italic=no}}. On 30 May 1837, the Duke of Orléans' wedding was celebrated at the {{lang|fr|[[château de Fontainebleau]]|italic=no}}.

A few days later, on 10 June {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}} inaugurated the {{lang|fr|[[Château de Versailles]]|italic=no}}, the restoration of which, begun in 1833, was intended to establish a Museum of the History of France, dedicated to "all the glories of France". The king had closely followed and personally financed the project entrusted to the architect {{lang|fr|[[Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine]]|italic=no}}. In a symbol of national reconciliation, the military glories of the Revolution and of the Empire, even those of the Restoration, were to sit side by side with those of the {{lang|fr|[[Ancien Régime]]}}.

==== The legislative elections of 4 November 1837 ====
{{further|French legislative election, 1837}}
{{lang|fr|Molé|italic=no}}'s government seemed stable, helped by the return of economic prosperity. Therefore, the king and {{lang|fr|Molé|italic=no}} decided, against the Duke of Orléans's advice, that the moment was auspicious for the dissolving of the Chamber, which was done on 3 October 1837. In order to influence the forthcoming elections, {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}} decided on the [[French rule in Algeria|Constantine expedition in Algeria]], a military success of [[General {{lang|fr|Sylvain Charles Valée|italic=no|nocat=y}}]] and the Duke of Nemours, second son of {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}}, who took {{lang|fr|[[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]]|italic=no}} on 13 October.

However, the [[1837 French legislative election|4 November 1837 elections]] did not deliver {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}}'s hopes. Of a total of 459 deputies, only a plurality of 220 were supporters of the regime. About 20 Legitimists had been elected, and 30 Republicans. The center-right {{lang|fr|[[Doctrinaires]]}} had approximately 30 deputies, the center-left about twice that many, and the dynastic opposition ({{lang|fr|Odilon Barrot|italic=no}}) 65. The {{lang|fr|Tiers-Parti}} had only about 15 deputies, and 30 more were undecided. Such a Chamber carried the risk of the formation of a heterogeneous coalition against the government.

As early as January 1838, the government was under great pressure, in particular from {{lang|fr|[[Charles Gauguier]]|italic=no}}, over deputies who were also civil servants. On 9 January he accused the government of electoral manipulation in order to have loyal civil servants elected. Where there had been 178 in the preceding Chamber, there were now 191. {{lang|fr|[[Adolphe Thiers]]|italic=no}} and his allies also defied the government, concerning Spanish affairs. However, with the help of the {{lang|fr|Doctrinaires}}, {{lang|fr|Molé|italic=no}} obtained a favorable vote for the address to the king on 13 January 1838, with 216 votes to 116.

{{lang|fr|Molé|italic=no}}'s cabinet appeared to be taken hostage by the {{lang|fr|Doctrinaires}}, at the exact moment when {{lang|fr|[[François Guizot|Guizot]]|italic=no}} was distancing himself from the President of the Council. All of {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}}'s efforts would be thereafter focused on pushing the {{lang|fr|Doctrinaires}} away from the ministerial majority. During the vote on the secret funds, both {{lang|fr|Guizot|italic=no}}, in the Chamber of Deputies, and the Duke of Broglie, in the Chamber of Peers, criticized the cabinet, although both ultimately voted with the government.

On 10 May 1838, the deputies rejected the government's plan for railway development, after having finally agreed, a week earlier, the proposals on government bonds opposed by {{lang|fr|Molé|italic=no}}. The Peers, however, supported {{lang|fr|Molé|italic=no}} and rejected the initiative. On 20 June 1838, {{lang|fr|Molé|italic=no}} succeeded in having the Assembly pass the 1839 budget before the parliamentary recess.

On the opening of the parliamentary session in December 1838, {{lang|fr|[[André Dupin]]|italic=no}} was elected by a very slim majority (183 votes for 178 for {{lang|fr|[[Hippolyte Passy]]|italic=no}}, the center-left candidate and adamant opponent of the "Castle cabinet") as President of the Chamber. A coalition, including {{lang|fr|Guizot|italic=no}}, {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}}, {{lang|fr|[[Prosper Duvergier de Hauranne]]|italic=no}} and {{lang|fr|[[Hippolyte Passy]]|italic=no}}, had formed during summer, but it did not prevent the vote of a favorable address to the King (221 votes against 208).

==== The legislative elections of 2 March 1839 ====
{{further|French legislative election, 1839}}
Confronted to such a slight and uncertain majority, {{lang|fr|Molé|italic=no}} presented his resignation to the king on 22 January 1839. {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}} first attempted to refuse it, and then, approaching Marshal Soult, who was not initially persuaded, offered him the lead. {{lang|fr|Soult|italic=no}} finally accepted after the funeral of the king's daughter, the [[Marie of Orléans (1813-1839)|{{lang|fr|duchesse de|italic=no|nocat=y}} {{lang|de|Württemberg|italic=no|nocat=y}}]], on the condition of moving promptly to new elections. During the electoral campaign, the left-wing opposition denounced what they termed a constitutional coup, comparing the 1837 and 1839 dissolutions to the consecutive dissolutions of Charles X in 1830. {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}} compared {{lang|fr|Molé|italic=no}} to {{lang|fr|[[Jules de Polignac|Polignac]]|italic=no}}, one of Charles X's ministers.

The [[1839 French legislative election|2 March 1839 elections]] were a disappointment for the king, who lost two loyal deputies, while the coalition mustered 240 members, against only 199 for the government. {{lang|fr|Molé|italic=no}} presented his resignation to the king on 8 March, which {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}} was forced to accept.

=== Second Soult government (May 1839 – February 1840) ===
[[File:Barbès, Armand.jpg|thumb|{{lang|fr|[[Armand Barbès]]|italic=no}}, one of the leaders of the Republican insurrection of 12 May 1839]]
After {{lang|fr|Molé|italic=no}}'s fall, {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}} immediately called upon Marshal {{lang|fr|Soult|italic=no}}, who attempted, without success, to form a government including the three leaders of the coalition who had brought down {{lang|fr|Molé|italic=no}}: {{lang|fr|Guizot|italic=no}}, {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}} and {{lang|fr|Odilon Barrot|italic=no}}. Confronted with the {{lang|fr|Doctrinaires}}' refusal, he then tried to form a center-left cabinet, which also foundered upon {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}}'s intransigence concerning Spanish affairs. These successive setbacks forced the king to postpone to 4 April 1839 the opening of the parliamentary session. Thiers also refused to be associated with the {{lang|fr|duc de Broglie|italic=no}} and {{lang|fr|Guizot|italic=no}}. The king then attempted to keep him at bay by offering him an embassy, which provoked the outcries of {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}}'s friends. Finally, {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}} resigned himself to composing, on 31 March 1839, a transitional and neutral government.

The parliamentary session opened on 4 April in a quasi-insurrectionary atmosphere. A large mob had gathered around the {{lang|fr|[[Palais-Bourbon]]|italic=no}}, seat of the Assembly, singing {{lang|fr|[[La Marseillaise]]}} and rioting. The left-wing press accused the government of provocations. Thiers supported {{lang|fr|Odilon Barrot|italic=no}} as President of the Chamber, but his attitude during the negotiations for the formation of a new cabinet had disappointed some of his friends. A part of the center-left thus decided to present {{lang|fr|[[Hippolyte Passy]]|italic=no}} against {{lang|fr|Barrot|italic=no}}. The latter won with 227 votes against 193, supported by the ministerial deputies and the {{lang|fr|Doctrinaires}}. This vote demonstrated that the coalition had imploded, and that a right-wing majority could be formed to oppose any left-wing initiative.

Despite this, the negotiations for the formation of a new cabinet still were unsuccessful, with Thiers making his friends promise to request his authorization before accepting any governmental function. The situation seemed at an impasse, when on 12 May 1839, the {{lang|fr|[[Société des saisons]]}}, a secret Republican society, headed by {{lang|fr|[[Martin Bernard (politician)|Martin Bernard]]|italic=no}}, {{lang|fr|[[Armand Barbès]]|italic=no}} and {{lang|fr|[[Auguste Blanqui]]|italic=no}}, organized an insurrection in the {{lang|fr|[[rue Saint-Denis (Paris)|Rue Saint-Denis]]|italic=no}} and the {{lang|fr|[[Rue Saint-Martin]]|italic=no}} in Paris. The [[League of the Just]], founded in 1836, participated in this uprising.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://socialistregister.com/socialistregister.com/files/SR_1998_Moss.pdf |title=Marx and the Permanent Revolution in France: Background to the ''Communist Manifesto'' |author=Bernard Moss |page=10 |work=[[The Socialist Register]] |date=1998 |archive-date=2007-07-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070710180952/http://socialistregister.com/socialistregister.com/files/SR_1998_Moss.pdf }}</ref> However, not only was it a failure, and the conspirators arrested, but this allowed {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}} to form a new government on the same day, presided over by Marshal {{lang|fr|Soult|italic=no}} who had assured him of his loyal support.

At the end of May, the vote on the secret funds gave a large majority to the new government, which also had the budget passed without any problems. The parliamentary recess was decreed on 6 August 1838, and the new session opened on 23 December, during which the Chamber voted a rather favorable address to the government by 212 votes to 43. {{lang|fr|Soult|italic=no}}'s cabinet, however, fell on 20 February 1839, 226 deputies having voted against proposed dowry of the Duke of Nemours (only 200 votes for), who was to marry [[Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|{{lang|fr|Victoire|italic=no|nocat=y}} de {{lang|de|Saxe-Cobourg-Kohary|italic=no|nocat=y}}]].

=== The second {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}} cabinet (March – October 1840) ===
[[File:Adolphe Thiers par Honoré Daumier.jpg|thumb|{{lang|fr|[[Adolphe Thiers]]|italic=no}}, by {{lang|fr|[[Honoré Daumier]]|italic=no}}]]
{{lang|fr|Soult|italic=no}}'s fall compelled the king to call on the main left-wing figure, {{lang|fr|Adolphe Thiers|italic=no}}. {{lang|fr|Guizot|italic=no}}, one of the only remaining right-wing alternatives, had just been named ambassador to London and left France. {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}}'s aim was to definitively establish parliamentary government, with a "king who reigns but does not rule", and a cabinet drawn from the parliamentary majority and answerable to it. Henceforth, he clearly opposed {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}}'s concept of government.

{{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}} formed his government on 1 March 1840. He first pretended to offer the presidency of the Council to the {{lang|fr|duc de Broglie|italic=no}}, and then {{lang|fr|Soult|italic=no}}, before accepting it and taking Foreign Affairs at the same time. His cabinet was composed of fairly young politicians (47 years old on average), {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}} himself being only 42.

Relations with the king were immediately difficult. {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}} embarrassed {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}} by suggesting that he nominate his friend {{lang|fr|[[Horace Sébastiani]]|italic=no}} as Marshal, which would expose him to the same criticisms he had previously suffered over political favoritism and the abuse of governmental power. {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}} thus decided to postpone {{lang|fr|Sébastiani|italic=no}}'s advancement.

{{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}} obtained an easy majority during the debate on the secret funds in March 1840 (246 votes to 160). Although he was classified as center-left, {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}}'s second government was highly conservative, and dedicated to the protection of the interests of the bourgeoisie. Although he had the deputies pass the vote on government bond conversion, which was a left-wing proposal, he was sure that it would be rejected by the Peers, which is what happened. On 16 May 1840, {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}} harshly rejected [[universal suffrage]] and social reforms after a speech by the [[Radicalism (historical)|Radical]] {{lang|fr|[[François Arago]]|italic=no}}, who had linked the ideas of electoral reform and social reform. {{lang|fr|Arago|italic=no}} was attempting to unite the left-wing by tying together universal suffrage claims and Socialist claims, which had appeared in the 1840s, concerning the "[[right of work]]" ({{lang|fr|droit au travail}}). He believed that electoral reform to establish universal suffrage should precede the social reform, which he considered very urgent.<ref>{{cite book |author=Christopher Guyver |title=The Second French Republic 1848–1852: A Political Reinterpretation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xP5jDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 |year=2016 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US |page=44 |isbn=978-1-137-59740-3 }}</ref>

On 15 June 1838, {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}} obtained the postponement of a proposal made by the conservative deputy {{lang|fr|[[Ovide de Rémilly]]|italic=no}} who, equipping himself with an old demand of the Left, sought to outlaw the nomination of deputies to salaried public offices during their elective mandate. As Thiers had previously supported this proposition, he was acutely criticized by the Left.

Since the end of August 1838, social problems related to the economic crisis which started in 1839 caused strikes and riots in the textile, clothing and construction sectors. On 7 September 1839, the cabinet-makers of the {{lang|fr|[[faubourg Saint-Antoine]]|italic=no}} started to put up barricades. {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}} responded by sending out the National Guard and invoking the laws prohibiting public meetings.

{{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}} also renewed the {{lang|fr|[[Banque de France]]|italic=no}}'s privilege until 1867 on such advantageous terms that the Bank had a commemorative gold medal cast. Several laws also established [[ocean liner|steamship lines]], operated by companies operating state-subsidised concessions. Other laws granted credits or guarantees to railway companies in difficulties.

==== Return of Napoleon's ashes ====
[[File:Repatriación de las cenizas de Napoleón a bordo de la Belle Poule, por Eugène Isabey.jpg|thumb|right|350px|''The transfer of Napoleon's ashes on board of {{lang|fr|La Belle Poule|italic=no}} on 15 October 1840.'' Painting by {{lang|fr|[[Eugène Isabey]]|italic=no}}.]]
{{Main|Retour des cendres}}
While {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}} favored the conservative bourgeoisie, he also made sure to satisfy the Left's thirst for glory. On 12 May 1840, the Minister of the Interior, {{lang|fr|[[Charles de Rémusat]]|italic=no}}, announced to the deputies that the king had decided that the remains of {{lang|fr|[[Napoléon]]|italic=no}} would be transferred to the {{lang|fr|[[Invalides]]|italic=no}}. With the British government's agreement, the {{lang|fr|Prince de Joinville|italic=no}} sailed to [[Saint Helena]] on the frigate {{lang|fr|[[French frigate Belle Poule (1834)|La Belle Poule]]}} to retrieve them.

This announcement immediately struck a chord with public opinion, which was swept along with patriotic fervor. Thiers saw in this act the successful completion of the rehabilitation of the Revolution and of the Empire, which he had attempted in his {{lang|fr|Histoire de la Révolution française}} and his {{lang|fr|Histoire du Consulat et de l'Empire}}, while {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}}, who was reluctant, aimed at capturing for himself a touch of the imperial glory, just as he had appropriated the legitimist monarchy's glory in the {{lang|fr|Château de Versailles|italic=no}}. The Prince {{lang|fr|[[Napoléon III|Louis-Napoléon]]|italic=no}} decided to seize the opportunity to land in {{lang|fr|[[Boulogne-sur-Mer]]|italic=no}} on 6 August 1840, with the aim of rallying the 42nd infantry regiment ({{lang|fr|42<sup>e</sup> régiment de ligne}}) along with some accomplices including one of {{lang|fr|Napoléon|italic=no}}'s comrades in Saint Helena, the [[Charles Tristan, marquis de Montholon|General {{lang|fr|de Montholon|italic=no|nocat=y}}]]. Although {{lang|fr|Montholon|italic=no}} was in reality a [[double agent]] used by the French government to spy, in London, on {{lang|fr|Louis-Napoléon|italic=no}}, {{lang|fr|Montholon|italic=no}} deceived {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}} by letting him think that the operation would take place in Metz. However, Bonaparte's operation was a complete failure, and he was detained with his men in the [[Fort of Ham]], Picardy.

Their trial took place before the Chamber of Peers from 28 September 1840 to 6 October 1840, to general indifference. The public's attention was concentrated on the trial of {{lang|fr|[[Marie Lafarge]]|italic=no}}, before the {{lang|fr|Cour d'assises}} of {{lang|fr|Tulle|italic=no}}, the defendant being accused of having poisoned her husband. Defended by the famous Legitimist lawyer {{lang|fr|[[Pierre-Antoine Berryer]]|italic=no}}, Bonaparte was sentenced to [[life detention]], by 152 votes (against 160 abstentions, out of a total of 312 Peers). "We do not kill insane people, all right! but we do confine them,<ref>{{lang|fr|«&thinsp;On ne tue pas les fous, soit! mais on les enferme&thinsp;»}}, in {{lang|fr|[[Le Journal des débats]]}} (quoted by {{harvnb|Antonetti|2002|p=818}})</ref> declared the {{lang|fr|[[Journal des débats]]}}, in this period of intense discussions concerning [[parricide]]s, [[mental disease]] and reform of the [[penal code]].<ref>See {{lang|fr|[[Michel Foucault]]|italic=no}}, {{lang|fr|Moi, Pierre Rivière, ayant égorgé ma mère, ma sœur et mon frère}} (Gallimard, 1973). English transl.: ''I, Pierre Rivière, Having Slaughtered my Mother, my Sister and my Brother'' (Penguin, 1975)</ref>

==== Colonization of Algeria ====
{{further|French rule in Algeria}}
[[File:L’ennemi repoussé des hauteurs de Coudiat-Ati.PNG|thumb|[[Siege of Constantine]] in 1837]]
The [[French rule in Algeria|conquest of Algeria]], initiated in the last days of the Bourbon Restoration, was now confronted by {{lang|ar-Latn|[[Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri|Abd-el-Kader]]|italic=no}}'s raids, punishing [[Marshal Valée|Marshal {{lang|fr|Valée|italic=no|nocat=y}}]] and the {{lang|fr|duc d'Orléans|italic=no}}'s expedition to the {{lang|fr|[[Portes de Fer]]}} in autumn 1839, which had violated the terms of the 1837 [[Treaty of Tafna]] between [[General Bugeaud|General {{lang|fr|Bugeaud|italic=no|nocat=y}}]] and {{lang|ar-Latn|Abd-el-Kader|italic=no}}. {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}} pushed in favor of colonizing of the interior of the country, up to the edges of the desert. He convinced the king, who saw in Algeria an ideal theater for his son to cover the House of {{lang|fr|Orléans|italic=no}} with glory, and persuaded him to send General {{lang|fr|Bugeaud|italic=no}} as first [[governor general of Algeria]]. {{lang|fr|Bugeaud|italic=no}}, who would lead harsh repression against the natives, was officially nominated on 29 December 1840, a few days after {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}}'s fall.

==== Middle Eastern affairs, a pretext for {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}}'s fall ====
{{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}} supported [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]], the Wali of Egypt, in his ambition to constitute a vast Arabian Empire from Egypt to Syria. He tried to intercede in order to have him sign an agreement with the [[Ottoman Empire]], unbeknownst to the four other European powers (Britain, Austria, [[Prussia]] and [[Russian Empire|Russia]]). However, informed of these negotiations, the British Minister of Foreign Affairs, [[Henry Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]], quickly negotiated a treaty between the four powers to sort out the "Eastern Question". When revealed, the [[Convention of London (1840)|London Convention]] of 15 July 1840 provoked an explosion of patriotic fury: France had been ousted from a zone where it traditionally exercised its influence (or attempted to), while Prussia, which had no interest in it, was associated with the treaty. Although {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}} pretended to join the general protestations, he knew that he could take advantage of the situation to get rid of {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}}.

The latter pandered to patriotic feelings by decreeing, on 29 July 1840, a partial mobilization, and by starting, on 13 September 1840, the works on the [[Fortifications of Paris in the 19th and 20th centuries|fortifications of Paris]]. But France remained passive when, on 2 October 1840, the [[Royal Navy]] mobilized along the Lebanese coastline. Mehemet Ali was then immediately dismissed as wali by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Sultan [[Abdulmejid I]].

Following long negotiations between the king and {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}}, a compromise was found on 7 October 1840: France would renounce its support for Muhammad Ali's pretensions in Syria but would declare to the European powers that Egypt should remain at all costs autonomous. Britain thereafter recognized Muhammad Ali's hereditary rule in Egypt: France had obtained a return to the situation of 1832. Despite this, the rupture between {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}} and {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}} was now definitive. On 29 October 1840, when {{lang|fr|[[Charles de Rémusat]]|italic=no}} presented to the Council of Ministers the draft of the speech of the throne, prepared by {{lang|fr|[[Hippolyte Passy]]|italic=no}}, {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}} found it too aggressive. After a short discussion, {{lang|fr|Thiers|italic=no}} and his associates collectively presented their resignations to the king, who accepted them. On the following day, {{lang|fr|Louis-Philippe|italic=no}} sent for Marshal {{lang|fr|Soult|italic=no|nocat=y}} and {{lang|fr|Guizot|italic=no}} so they could return to Paris as soon as possible.