Editing Light pollution (section)

=== Public health impact ===

{{see also|Light effects on circadian rhythm|Ecological light pollution}}
[[File:Lichtverschmutzung in Kastelruth.JPG|thumb|right|Streetlights at the ski resort [[Kastelruth]] in [[South Tyrol]], Italy]]

Medical research on the effects of excessive light on the human body suggests that a variety of adverse health effects may be caused by light pollution or excessive light exposure, and some lighting design textbooks<ref>Gary Steffy, ''Architectural Lighting Design'', John Wiley and Sons (2001) {{ISBN|0-471-38638-3}}.</ref> use human health as an explicit criterion for proper interior lighting. Health effects of over-illumination or improper spectral composition of light may include: increased headache incidence, worker [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], [[stress (medicine)|medically defined stress]], decrease in [[Human sexuality|sexual]] function and increase in anxiety.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rajkhowa |first=Rasna |date=2014 |title=Light Pollution and Impact of Light Pollution |url=https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/87472490/T0NUMTQyMTA_-libre.pdf?1655167711=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DLight_Pollution_and_Impact_of_Light_Poll.pdf&Expires=1711526208&Signature=JgCjCdabA5biUDvw1GF7dPaMfpgGGlYOxBIoD4K7sRWbGmAfL0CCWkQPbPD2AM1l8-nfahO0oubK04sdsOT7UUklLAvEOa-Ljel6S2Yah3yI~~nt7PqkK91JO09BB7JXpsFj4l0cUfa0~c6rNno5jAQ-sjnnDU9omC9NrrvqT9zDWxPG5-IYUbfHWg9hXsqKTnTqkafL3FGIg29XtxjVg0rxZhq3J-TaQvaJ-1XWqRGQTJS3R4st-UMUdmtfyhvS0QFoXus7GbKENt6hdgR2uDW76Pfbz~OLlTIg0q1AlttjNw-mi7uTZCH5Lad3Tyb2M1QmwPCvNjWkmxaUqVCtKQ__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA |journal=International Journal of Science and Research |volume=3 |issue=10 |pages=861–867 |access-date=2024-03-27 |archive-date=2024-03-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327070224/https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/87472490/T0NUMTQyMTA_-libre.pdf?1655167711=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DLight_Pollution_and_Impact_of_Light_Poll.pdf&Expires=1711526208&Signature=JgCjCdabA5biUDvw1GF7dPaMfpgGGlYOxBIoD4K7sRWbGmAfL0CCWkQPbPD2AM1l8-nfahO0oubK04sdsOT7UUklLAvEOa-Ljel6S2Yah3yI~~nt7PqkK91JO09BB7JXpsFj4l0cUfa0~c6rNno5jAQ-sjnnDU9omC9NrrvqT9zDWxPG5-IYUbfHWg9hXsqKTnTqkafL3FGIg29XtxjVg0rxZhq3J-TaQvaJ-1XWqRGQTJS3R4st-UMUdmtfyhvS0QFoXus7GbKENt6hdgR2uDW76Pfbz~OLlTIg0q1AlttjNw-mi7uTZCH5Lad3Tyb2M1QmwPCvNjWkmxaUqVCtKQ__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Burks">Burks, Susan L. (1994) ''Managing your Migraine'', Humana Press, New Jersey. {{ISBN|0-89603-277-9}}.</ref><ref name="Cambridge">''Cambridge Handbook of Psychology, Health and Medicine'', edited by Andrew Baum, Robert West, John Weinman, Stanton Newman, Chris McManus, Cambridge University Press (1997) {{ISBN|0-521-43686-9}}</ref><ref name="Pijnenburg">Pijnenburg, L.; Camps, M. and Jongmans-Liedekerken, G. (1991) ''Looking closer at assimilation lighting'', Venlo, GGD, Noord-Limburg</ref><ref name="Knez">{{cite journal|last1=Knez|first1=I|title=Effects of colour of light on nonvisual psychological processes|journal=Journal of Environmental Psychology|volume=21|pages=201–208|date=2001|doi=10.1006/jevp.2000.0198|issue=2}}</ref> Likewise, animal models have been studied demonstrating unavoidable light to produce adverse effect on mood and anxiety.<ref name="sadrodents">{{Cite journal |last1=Fonken |first1=L K |last2=Finy |first2=M S |title=Influence of light at night on murine anxiety- and depressive-like responses |journal = Behavioural Brain Research| volume = 205 |issue=2 | pages = 349–354 | date = 28 December 2009| doi =10.1016/j.bbr.2009.07.001|last3 = Walton| first3 = James C.| last4 = Weil| first4 = Zachary M.| last5 = Workman| first5 = Joanna L.| last6 = Ross| first6 = Jessica| last7 = Nelson| first7 = Randy J.| pmid = 19591880|s2cid=4204514 }}</ref> For those who need to be awake at night, light at night also has an acute effect on alertness and mood.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1177/1477153509360887|date=2010 |author=Plitnick B |author2=Figueiro MG |author3=Wood B |author4=Rea MS|journal=Lighting Research and Technology|title=The effects of long-wavelength red and short-wavelength blue lights on alertness and mood at night|volume=42|issue=4|pages=449–458|s2cid=54032781 }}</ref>

Outdoor artificial light at night – exposure to contemporary types such as current types of street lighting – has been linked to risks for obesity,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Park |first1=Yong-Moon Mark |last2=White |first2=Alexandra J. |last3=Jackson |first3=Chandra L. |last4=Weinberg |first4=Clarice R. |last5=Sandler |first5=Dale P. |title=Association of Exposure to Artificial Light at Night While Sleeping With Risk of Obesity in Women |journal=JAMA Internal Medicine |date=1 August 2019 |volume=179 |issue=8 |pages=1061–1071 |doi=10.1001/jamainternmed.2019.0571|pmid=31180469 |pmc=6563591 }}</ref> mental disorders,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tancredi |first1=Stefano |last2=Urbano |first2=Teresa |last3=Vinceti |first3=Marco |last4=Filippini |first4=Tommaso |title=Artificial light at night and risk of mental disorders: A systematic review |journal=Science of the Total Environment |date=August 2022 |volume=833 |pages=155185 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155185|pmid=35417728 |bibcode=2022ScTEn.83355185T |s2cid=248093823 }}</ref> [[diabetes]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zheng |first1=Ruizhi |last2=Xin |first2=Zhuojun |last3=Li |first3=Mian |last4=Wang |first4=Tiange |last5=Xu |first5=Min |last6=Lu |first6=Jieli |last7=Dai |first7=Meng |last8=Zhang |first8=Di |last9=Chen |first9=Yuhong |last10=Wang |first10=Shuangyuan |last11=Lin |first11=Hong |last12=Wang |first12=Weiqing |last13=Ning |first13=Guang |last14=Bi |first14=Yufang |last15=Zhao |first15=Zhiyun |last16=Xu |first16=Yu |title=Outdoor light at night in relation to glucose homoeostasis and diabetes in Chinese adults: a national and cross-sectional study of 98,658 participants from 162 study sites |journal=Diabetologia |date=14 November 2022 |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=336–345 |doi=10.1007/s00125-022-05819-x |pmid=36372821 |s2cid=253509635 |language=en |issn=1432-0428|doi-access=free }}</ref> and potentially other health issues<ref>{{cite journal |title=Artificial Light at Night: State of the Science 2022 |url=https://www.darksky.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/IDA-State-of-the-Science-2022-EN.pdf |publisher=International Dark-Sky Association |access-date=17 December 2022 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.6903500 |date=9 June 2022 |last1=Barentine |first1=John C. |archive-date=1 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401022338/https://www.darksky.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/IDA-State-of-the-Science-2022-EN.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> by preliminary studies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zielinska-Dabkowska |first1=K. M. |last2=Schernhammer |first2=E. S. |last3=Hanifin |first3=J. P. |last4=Brainard |first4=G. C. |title=Reducing nighttime light exposure in the urban environment to benefit human health and society |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |date=2023 |volume=380 |issue=6650 |pages=1130–1135 |doi=10.1126/science.adg5277|pmid=37319219 |bibcode=2023Sci...380.1130Z |s2cid=259166063 }}</ref>

In 2007, "shift work that involves circadian disruption" was listed as a probable carcinogen by the World Health Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer. (IARC Press release No. 180).<ref>{{cite web| title = IARC Monographs Programme finds cancer hazards associated with shiftwork, painting and firefighting, International Agency for Research on Cancer| access-date = 2011-07-06| url = http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2007/pr180.html| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110721001355/http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2007/pr180.html| archive-date = 2011-07-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title = IARC Monograph 98| access-date = 2011-07-06| url = http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol98/index.php| archive-date = 2018-06-15| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180615141748/http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol98/index.php| url-status = live}}</ref> Multiple studies have documented a correlation between night shift work and the increased incidence of breast and prostate cancer.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Schernhammer|first1=ES|last2=Schulmeister|first2=K|title=Melatonin and cancer risk: does light at night compromise physiologic cancer protection by lowering serum melatonin levels?|journal=British Journal of Cancer|volume=90|issue=5|pages=941–3|date=2004|pmid=14997186|pmc=2409637|doi=10.1038/sj.bjc.6601626}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hansen|first1=J|title=Increased breast cancer risk among women who work predominantly at night|journal=Epidemiology |volume=12|issue=1|pages=74–7|date=2001|pmid=11138824|doi=10.1097/00001648-200101000-00013|s2cid=34390800|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1093/jnci/93.20.1557 |pmid=11604479 |last1=Davis |first1=S |date=2001 |pages=1557–62 |issue=20 |last2=Mirick |volume=93 |journal=Journal of the National Cancer Institute |first2=DK |last3=Stevens |first3=RG |title=Night shift work, light at night, and risk of breast cancer |url=http://depts.washington.edu/epidem/Epi591/JNCI%20Editorial.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513142946/http://depts.washington.edu/epidem/Epi591/JNCI%20Editorial.pdf |archive-date=2012-05-13 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1093/jnci/93.20.1563|last1=Schernhammer|first1=ES|last2=Laden|first2=F|last3=Speizer|first3=FE|last4=Willett|first4=WC|last5=Hunter|first5=DJ|last6=Kawachi|first6=I|last7=Colditz|first7=GA|title=Rotating night shifts and risk of breast cancer in women participating in the nurses' health study|journal=Journal of the National Cancer Institute|volume=93|issue=20|pages=1563–8|date=2001|pmid=11604480|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=16596289|last1=Bullough|first1=JD|date=2006|pages=375–83|issue=4|last2=Rea|volume=17|first2=MS|journal=Cancer Causes & Control|last3=Figueiro|first3=MG|title=Of mice and women: light as a circadian stimulus in breast cancer research|url=http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/lightHealth/pdf/ofmiceandwomen.pdf|doi=10.1007/s10552-005-0574-1|s2cid=13069747|access-date=2010-09-29|archive-date=2019-05-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190516062212/https://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/lightHealth/pdf/ofmiceandwomen.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=19142761
|last1=Kloog|first1=I|date=2009|pages=108–25|issue=1|last2=Haim|volume=26|first2=A|journal=Chronobiology International|last3=Stevens|first3=RG|last4=Portnov|first4=BA|title=Global co-distribution of light at night (LAN) and cancers of prostate, colon, and lung in men|doi=10.1080/07420520802694020|s2cid=16501239}}</ref> One study which examined the link between exposure to artificial light at night (ALAN) and levels of [[breast cancer]] in South Korea found that regions which had the highest levels of ALAN reported the highest number of cases of breast cancer. Seoul, which had the highest levels of light pollution, had 34.4% more cases of breast cancer than Ganwon-do, which had the lowest levels of light pollution. This suggested a high correlation between ALAN and the prevalence of breast cancer. It was also found that there was no correlation between other types of cancer such as cervical or lung cancer and ALAN levels.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yun Jeong|display-authors=etal|date=2015|title=High prevalence of breast cancer in light polluted areas in urban and rural regions of South Korea:An ecologic study on the treatment prevalence of female cancers based on National Health Insurance data.|journal=Chronobiology International|volume=32|issue=5|pages=657–667|doi=10.3109/07420528.2015.1032413|pmid=25955405|s2cid=38132259|url=https://figshare.com/articles/dataset/High_prevalence_of_breast_cancer_in_light_polluted_areas_in_urban_and_rural_regions_of_South_Korea_An_ecologic_study_on_the_treatment_prevalence_of_female_cancers_based_on_National_Health_Insurance_data/1568204|access-date=2021-10-01|archive-date=2022-05-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528102753/https://figshare.com/articles/dataset/High_prevalence_of_breast_cancer_in_light_polluted_areas_in_urban_and_rural_regions_of_South_Korea_An_ecologic_study_on_the_treatment_prevalence_of_female_cancers_based_on_National_Health_Insurance_data/1568204|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

A more recent discussion (2009), written by Professor Steven Lockley, Harvard Medical School, can be found in the CfDS handbook "Blinded by the Light?".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britastro.org/dark-skies/handbook.html |title=CfDS Handbook |publisher=Britastro.org |access-date=2010-09-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617011039/http://www.britastro.org/dark-skies/handbook.html |archive-date=2010-06-17 }}</ref> Chapter 4, "Human health implications of light pollution" states that "...{{nbsp}}light intrusion, even if dim, is likely to have measurable effects on sleep disruption and melatonin suppression. Even if these effects are relatively small from night to night, continuous chronic circadian, sleep and hormonal disruption may have longer-term health risks". The New York Academy of Sciences hosted a meeting in 2009 on Circadian Disruption and Cancer.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://network.nature.com/hubs/nyc/events/8335 |title=Event—Circadian Disruption and Cancer on Nature Network |publisher=Network.nature.com |access-date=2010-09-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512162244/http://network.nature.com/hubs/nyc/events/8335 |archive-date=2011-05-12 }}</ref> In different wavelengths of light, red light has the least inhibitory effect on melatonin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chepesiuk |first=Ron |date=January 2009 |title=Missing the Dark: Health Effects of Light Pollution |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |language=en |volume=117 |issue=1 |doi=10.1289/ehp.117-a20 |issn=0091-6765 |pmc=2627884 |pmid=19165374}}</ref><ref name="uchc">{{cite web| last = Cheung| first = Maria| title = Graveyard Shift Work Linked to Cancer| work = news| publisher = University of Connecticut Health Center| date = 2009-11-29| url = http://today.uchc.edu/headlines/2007/nov07/graveyard| access-date = 2012-07-06| archive-date = 2020-11-27| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201127030939/http://today.uchc.edu/headlines/2007/nov07/graveyard/| url-status = live}}</ref>

In June 2009, the [[American Medical Association]] developed a policy in support of control of light pollution. News about the decision emphasized [[glare (vision)|glare]] as a [[public health]] hazard leading to unsafe driving conditions. Especially in the elderly, glare produces loss of contrast, obscuring night vision.<ref name="Motta-2009" />

A new 2021 study published in the Southern Economic Journal indicates that light pollution may increase by 13% in preterm births before 23 weeks of gestation.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Light pollution, sleep deprivation, and infant health at birth |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/soej.12477 |journal=Southern Economic Journal |year=2021 |doi=10.1002/soej.12477 |access-date=4 March 2021 |last1=Argys |first1=Laura M. |last2=Averett |first2=Susan L. |last3=Yang |first3=Muzhe |volume=87 |issue=3 |pages=849–888 |hdl=10419/185163 |s2cid=92984550 |hdl-access=free |archive-date=17 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417152759/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/soej.12477 |url-status=live }}</ref>