Editing 1191 (section)

=== By place ===

==== Byzantine Empire ====
* [[April 10]] &ndash; King [[Richard I of England|Richard I]] ('''the Lionheart''') leaves [[Messina]] for [[Palestina (region)|Palestina]], but a storm drives his fleet apart. Richard is forced to seek shelter at a Cretan port – from which he has a tempestuous passage to [[Rhodes]], where he stays for ten days (from [[April 22]] to [[May 1]]), recovering from his sea-sickness. After some searching, he discovers that the ship carrying his sister [[Joan of England, Queen of Sicily|Joan of England]] and his new fiancée, [[Berengaria of Navarre]], is anchored on the south coast of [[Cyprus]], along with the wrecks of several other vessels, including Richard's treasure ship. The survivors of the wrecks have been taken prisoner by [[Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus|Isaac Komnenos]], the self-styled emperor of Cyprus.<ref name=Runciman1952/>{{rp|37}}
* [[May 8]] &ndash; Richard I and his main fleet arrive in the Byzantine port of [[Limassol]] on Cyprus. He orders Isaac Komnenos to release the prisoners and his treasure. Isaac refuses, Richard embarks his forces, and takes Limassol. The Byzantine population and also the Latin merchants in their dislike of Isaac, show themselves friendly to the English invaders. Various leading Crusaders of the [[Holy Land]] arrive in Limassol, on [[May 11]]. Among them are King [[Guy of Lusignan]] of [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]], [[Bohemond III of Antioch]], [[Humphrey IV of Toron]], and [[Leo I, King of Armenia|Leo I of Armenia]]. They declare their support for Richard in return that he supports them against their rival, [[Conrad of Montferrat]].<ref name=Runciman1952/>{{rp|38–39}}
* [[May 12]] &ndash; Richard I marries the 19-year-old Berengaria of Navarre, daughter of King [[Sancho VI of Navarre|Sancho VI]] ('''the Wise'''), in the Chapel of [[Saint George|St. George]] at Limassol. On the same day, she is crowned Queen of [[Kingdom of England|England]], by [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Évreux#1000–1300|John]], bishop of [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Évreux|Évreux]] in the presence of the archbishop of [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bordeaux|Bordeaux]] and many other clergy. After this, hearing that the daughter of Isaac Komnenos has taken refuge in [[Kyrenia Castle]], Richard goes there with his army and receives her submission. On the orders of Richard, she is entrusted to the care of Joan and Berengaria. By the end of May, Richard, with his ships, sails around the island seizing all the Cypriot towns and ports on the coast.<ref>Nicholson, Helen J. (1997). ''Chronicle of the Third Crusade: A Translation of the Itinerarium Peregrinorum et Gesta Regis Ricardi'', p. 189. Ashbury, UK: Ashgate. {{ISBN|1-85928-154-0}}.</ref>
* [[June 1]] &ndash; A Crusader force led by Richard I defeats the Byzantine army near the village of [[Tremetousia|Tremithus]]. Isaac Komnenos flees from the battlefield to [[Kantara, İskele|Kantara]]. Richard captures Isaac's banner and hunts down the remnants of his army. At [[Nicosia]] Richard becomes ill; Guy of Lusignan in command of Richard's forces, marches on [[Kyrenia Castle|Kyrenia]] and captures it, taking the empress and her child prisoner. Isaac is taken before Richard (in chains of silver) and accepts an unconditional surrender. Richard places garrisons in the towns and castles, and appoints [[Richard de Camville]] as governor of Cyprus, jointly with [[Robert of Thornham]].<ref name=Runciman1952/>{{rp|39–40}}
* Autumn &ndash; Emperor [[Isaac II Angelos|Isaac II]] ('''Angelos''') leads a punitive expedition against Grand Prince [[Stefan Nemanja]]. The Serbians are defeated at [[South Morava]] and retreat into the mountains. The Byzantine forces raid all lands around the bank of the river and burn down Stefan's court in [[Kuršumlija]]. Nemanja does not surrender and starts irregular warfare and Isaac negotiates a peace treaty. The Serbians are forced to give up a large part of their conquests, east of the [[Great Morava|Velika Morava]], and recognize Byzantine rule. Isaac recognizes Nemanja as Grand Prince of [[Grand Principality of Serbia|Serbia]].

==== Third Crusade ====
* [[February 13]] &ndash; Muslim forces attack and succeed in breaking the siege lines around [[Acre, Israel|Acre]]. Though the Crusaders seal the breach, [[Saladin]] is able to replenish the garrison, by sending reinforcements. For the defenders, this is a temporary respite – and Saladin is having difficulty keeping his army together. [[Al-Muzaffar I Umar|Taqi al-Din]], Saladin's nephew and one of his most effective commanders, fails to rejoin the siege. He divides his army for his own territorial ambitions in modern southeastern [[Turkey]]. Later in the spring, Taqi al-Din brings his forces to support the double-siege at Acre.<ref name=Nicolle2005>[[David Nicolle]] (2005). ''The Third Crusade 1191: Richard the Lionheart, Saladin and the struggle for Jerusalem''. {{ISBN|978-1-84176-868-7}}.</ref>{{rp|47}}
* [[April 20]] &ndash; King [[Philip II of France|Philip II]] ('''Augustus''') arrives with a Genoese flotilla (six ships) filled with French nobles and his cousin [[Conrad of Montferrat]] at Acre. He begins the construction of seven immense stone-throwers – which are used to bombard the city, on [[May 30]]. One of the siege-machines is called by the French soldiers the "Evil Neighbour" and "God's Own Sling", and a grappling ladder is known as the "Cat". Meanwhile, the walls of Acre are pounded relentlessly. The Crusaders built earthworks, ramparts, and ditches to protect themselves against Muslim attacks.<ref name=Runciman1952>Steven Runciman (1952). ''A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre''. {{ISBN|978-0-241-29877-0}}.</ref>{{rp|41}}
* [[June 8]] &ndash; Richard I arrives with 25 ships and a strong advanced guard at Acre. Upon reaching the city, he is greeted by Philip II and then sets up his camp. Richard becomes almost immediately seriously ill (called ''Arnaldia'') and is confined to his tent. Nevertheless, he leaps into action and secretly initiates negotiations with Saladin. After having been refused a personal meeting, Richard sends a Moroccan prisoner to Saladin's camp as a sign of goodwill. Finally, Saladin accepts a three-day truce and allows his younger brother, [[Al-Adil I|Al-Adil]], to negotiate with Richard.<ref name=Runciman1952/>{{rp|40–41}}
* [[June 25]] &ndash; The Crusader armies (now totaling some 25,000 men) who are deployed around Acre, implement a unified strategy of assault-based siege. Teams of sappers and, increasingly massive use of advanced and new stone-throwing catapults, brought by Philip II and Richard I, are used to hammer Acre's walls continuously with giant, accurately loosed stones. By late June, the assault is beginning to undermine the walls, which are tottering. Because of troop shortages and disease, the Muslim defenders can not any longer strengthen their walls.<ref name=Runciman1952/>{{rp|42}}
* [[July 3]] &ndash; The Crusaders change their strategy from battering the Acre fortifications to exploiting the breaches. After only the first day of these all-out attacks to seize the city, Saladin's governor sends a message stating he would surrender unless he is relieved. Both French sappers and English catapults manage to make significant breaches in the walls – but the assault is repulsed. Meanwhile, Richard I, still unable to walk due to illness, is carried on a regal stretcher near the front lines from where he picks off Muslim troops on the walls using his [[crossbow]].<ref>Asbridge, Thomas (2012). ''The Crusades: The War for the Holy land'', p. 294. Simon and Schuster. {{ISBN|978-1-849-83770-5}}.</ref>
* [[July 12]] &ndash; [[Siege of Acre (1189–1191)|Siege of Acre]]: The Muslim garrison surrenders to Philip II, which includes an agreement to give up the 70 Muslim ships in the harbour without Saladin's consent, and by the time that he learned of this intention, the city has already capitulated. Conrad of Montferrat, who has negotiated the surrender, raises the banners of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], and of the Crusader leaders Philip II, Richard I, and [[Leopold V, Duke of Austria|Leopold V of Austria]], on the city's walls and towers. The siege of Acre has taken nearly two years and has cost some 100,000 Christian casualties.<ref name=Runciman1952/>{{rp|43}}
* [[July 31]] &ndash; Philip II, accompanied by Conrad of Montferrat, departs to [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] and returns to [[France in the Middle Ages|France]]. He leaves behind a French army (some 10,000 men) under the command of [[Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy|Hugh III]], duke of [[Burgundy]]. Richard I is left in sole command of the Crusader forces in the [[Levant]]. Back in France, Philip schemes with Richard's brother, [[John of England]], to dispossess Richard of his French lands while he is still away, but the intervention of John's mother, Queen [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]], foils the plan. Meanwhile, Richard rebuilds and strengthens the walls of Acre.<ref name=Runciman1952/>{{rp|44–45}}
* [[August 20]] &ndash; [[Massacre at Ayyadieh|Massacre of Ayyadieh]]: Richard I orders the execution of some 3,000 Muslim prisoners (captured after the siege of Acre), including women and children. The bound prisoners are mercilessly beheaded or cut down using swords and lances. A small group of Saladin's forces (located on [[Mount Tabor]]) tries to intervene in order to stop the massacre – but they are repelled. In response, Saladin executes all the Latin prisoners he himself has taken. In the [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid Sultanate]], Latin prisoners are tortured and murdered in reprisal for their infamy.<ref name=Runciman1952/>{{rp|45–46}}
* [[August 22]] &ndash; Richard I leads the Crusader forces (some 15,000 men) out of Acre and marches south along the coast, being closely supported by the Crusader fleet, carrying most of the supplies. Meanwhile, Saladin has given his son [[Al-Afdal ibn Salah ad-Din|Al-Afdal]] orders to remain close to the Crusader rearguard under Hugh III, and strengthens the Muslim garrison both in Jerusalem and [[Ascalon]] with 20,000 men each. Richard advances at an unexpectedly slow pace and decides to make camp near [[Haifa]] – which Saladin has dismantled shortly before the fall of Acre.<ref name=Runciman1952/>{{rp|46}}
* [[August 25]]&ndash;[[August 26|26]] &ndash; Richard I leads a fast-moving advance-guard and establishes a strong position at the fortress near [[Tantura|Merle]] before Saladin arrives. He then hurries back to support the rearguard, to regain contact with the Crusader forces. Richard reorganizes his marching column. The elite [[Knights Templar|Templar]] and [[Knights Hospitaller|Hospitaller]] knights hold the van and rearguard, while Richard and a central mass of knights are screened on their landward left side by dense ranks of well-armoured infantry, whose panoply makes them almost immune to Muslim missile attacks.<ref name=Nicolle2005/>{{rp|52}}
* [[August 30]] &ndash; Richard I advances in three divisions towards [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]], with the Crusader fleet accompanying him off-shore. The rearguard becomes engaged, and the French forces under Hugh III are nearly annihilated. Saladin has selected this part of the road for a major assault, but the Muslim attacks have little effect. The main effort to harass the Crusaders from a distance fails. Richard makes camp at the mouth of the [[Zarqa River]], despite the intense heat, thirst, and the loss of many lives. Both armies rest and watch each other the rest of the day.<ref name=Nicolle2005/>{{rp|59}}
* [[September 2]] &ndash; Richard I leads the Crusader army past Caesarea and is forced to turn inland, where he is separated from his supply ships. Saladin personally attacks the massed Crusader infantry, by bombarding them with arrows before charging their line with cavalry. During this brief but indecisive engagement, Richard is struck in the side by a crossbow bolt – though his armour absorbs much of the blow. By the end of the day, only 25 miles from [[Jaffa]], Richard allows his men to rest (while recovering from his wounds) and re-assembles his forces.<ref name=Nicolle2005/>{{rp|66}}
* [[September 5]] &ndash; Richard I dispatches envoys to request for peace talks and meets Al-Adil under a flag of truce. Saladin allows the Crusaders to forage in the Forrest of [[Apollonia–Arsuf|Arsuf]]. But Richard is in no mood for actual negotiations and demands nothing less than the cession of Palestina. Al-Adil at once breaks off the negotiations. Richard orders his forces to march quietly through the woods, and the Crusaders manage to reach the limits of the forest unhindered and unharmed. The Crusaders pitch their tents in the "Rochetaille" and rest for the night.<ref name=Nicolle2005/>{{rp|66}}
* [[September 7]] &ndash; [[Battle of Arsuf]]: Richard I fights a pitched battle – while waiting for the ideal moment to mount a counterattack. However, the Hospitaller knights led by [[Garnier de Nablus]] break formation and launch a charge. Richard restores order in the turmoil and is forced to commit his entire army to support the attack. The Muslim forces flee in panic, but Saladin rallies them in time to defend his camp, and even to lead a counter-charge. By evening, Richard has defeated the Muslim forces, and Saladin retreats in good order to [[Ramallah]].<ref name=Runciman1952/>{{rp|47–49}}
* [[September 9]]&ndash;[[September 10|10]] &ndash; Richard I and his Crusader forces march on to Jaffa and set about rebuilding its fortifications, which Saladin has destroyed by his [[scorched-earth]] policy. Mid-September, a large number of French nobles begin to resist – such as Hugh III. They argue about the refortification of Jaffa, instead of a direct strike inland on Jerusalem. Meanwhile, Saladin evacuates and demolishes most of the fortresses of southern Palestina.<ref>Oman, Charles William Chadwick (1924). ''A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages. Vol I: 378–1278 AD'', pp. 317–318. London: Greenhill Books; Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, reprinted in 1998.</ref>
* [[October 29]] &ndash; Richard I marches with the Crusader forces onto the plains east of Jaffa and begins the slow, steady work of rebuilding a string of sites through which to advance on Jerusalem. During this period, the [[Third Crusade]] degenerates into a series of skirmishes. Richard uses diplomacy alongside military threats, hoping to bring Saladin to the point of submission before he has to make the siege of Jerusalem itself.<ref>Verbruggen, J. F. (1997). ''The Art of Warfare in Western Europe during the Middle Ages: From the Eighth Century to 1340'', p. 239. Boydell & Brewer.</ref>
* December &ndash; Richard I and his Crusader forces occupy [[Latrun]], while the advance-guard takes [[Bayt Nuba]]. He is warned by his nobles to take no further risks – due to winter conditions, and for being cut off if he presses on. Amongst those keenest on continuing are the French Crusaders under Hugh III. On [[December 25]], Richard is now just 12 miles from Jerusalem.<ref name=Nicolle2005/>{{rp|85}}

==== Europe ====
* [[April 15]] &ndash; [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry VI]], son of the late Emperor [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick I]] ('''Barbarossa'''), is crowned as Emperor of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], together with his wife [[Constance I of Sicily|Constance]] by Pope [[Pope Celestine III|Celestine III]], on Easter Monday at [[Rome]]. Henry marches south and begins a campaign in [[Apulia]]. He besieges [[Naples]], but encounters the resistance of Sicilian forces under [[Margaritus of Brindisi]], who come to support the city's defense. [[Tusculum]] is destroyed by the rebel army of the [[Commune of Rome]], on [[April 17]].<ref>Horst Fuhrmann (1986). ''Germany in High Middle Ages: c. 1050–1200'', p. 181. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-31980-5}}.</ref>
* August &ndash; Margaritus of Brindisi defeats the Pisan fleet during the siege of Naples, and nearly destroys the late-arriving Genoese contingent. He keeps the harbour approaches open for supplies and reinforcements.
* Prince [[Yury Bogolyubsky]] leads a rebellion of disaffected Georgian nobleman against his ex-wife, Queen [[tamar of Georgia|Tamara]] ('''the Great'''), but her forces win a two pitched battle at [[Tmogvi]] and [[Erusheti]]. Yury is captured, and Tamara allows him to withdraw to [[Constantinople]].<ref>Khazanov, Anatoly M. (2001). ''Nomads in the Sedentary World'', p. 49. London and New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-7007-1369-7}}.</ref>
* Henry VI is forced to raise the siege of Naples, due to an epidemic, and returns to [[Kingdom of Germany|Germany]]. Upon Henry's retreat, the Lombard cities that have surrendered to the Germans resubmit to [[Tancred, King of Sicily|Tancred of Lecce]], king or usurper of [[Kingdom of Sicily|Sicily]]. The populace of [[Salerno]] turn against Empress Constance during her visit to the city, and [[Margaritus of Brindisi]] delivers her to Tancred at Messina. Later, Constance is imprisoned at [[Castel dell'Ovo]] at Naples.
* The counties of [[County of Flanders|Flanders]] and [[County of Hainaut|Hainaut]] (modern [[Belgium]]) are united under Count [[Baldwin V, Count of Hainaut|Baldwin VIII]]. Flanders, a feudal fiefdom of France, becomes an important, wealthy independent state of [[Western Europe]].<ref>David Nicolle (2011). ''The Fourth Crusade 1202–04: The betrayal of Byzantium'', p. 12. {{ISBN|978-1-84908-319-5}}.</ref>
*[[Sieges of Silves (1190–1191)|Siege of Silves]] – Almohad forces under Caliph [[Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur]] reconquer [[Silves, Portugal|Silves]] in [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]].<ref name=Picard1997>{{cite book|last=Picard|first=Christophe|title=La mer et les musulmans d'Occident VIIIe-XIIIe siècle|year=1997|publisher=Presses Universitaires de France|location=Paris}}</ref> In the same campaign, the Almohads take also [[Alcácer do Sal]], while [[Palmela]] and [[Almada]] are sacked.<ref name=picard2000>{{cite book|last=Picard|first=Christophe|title=Le Portugal musulman (VIIIe-XIIIe siècle. L'Occident d'al-Andalus sous domination islamique|year=2000|publisher=Maisonneuve & Larose|location=Paris|isbn=2-7068-1398-9|page=110}}</ref>
* [[Berthold V, Duke of Zähringen|Berthold V]], duke of [[House of Zähringen|Zähringen]], founds the city of [[Bern]] (modern [[Switzerland]]).
* King [[Canute VI of Denmark|Canute VI]] leads a Danish Crusade to [[Finland]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Muinaisuutemme jäljet|author1=Georg Haggren|author2=Petri Halinen|author3=Mika Lavento|author4=Sami Raninen ja Anna Wessman|publisher=Gaudeamus|year=2015|location=Helsinki|pages=380}}</ref>

==== England ====
* Spring &ndash; [[William de Longchamp]], Chief [[Justiciar]] and [[regent]], besieges [[Lincoln Castle]] accusing the castellan [[Gerard de Canville]] of corruption. In response, Prince John captures [[Nottingham Castle|Nottingham]] and [[Tickhill Castle|Tickhill]] castles from William. News of the dispute reaches Richard I, who sends [[Walter de Coutances]], archbishop of [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Rouen|Rouen]], with orders to lead negotiations, for a peace between John and William.<ref>Huscroft, H. (2005). ''Ruling England 1042–1217'', p. 144. London: Pearson/Longman. {{ISBN|0-582-84882-2}}.</ref>
* April &ndash; John and William de Longchamp meet at [[Winchester]] to discuss their differences. Several senior bishops are appointed as arbitrators. At the end of the meeting, both John and William agree to follow the recommendations. William is to return Lincoln Castle to Gerard de Canville and accepts limits to his powers. In return, John is to surrender Nottingham and Tickhill castles.
* September &ndash; [[Geoffrey (archbishop of York)|Geoffrey]], illegitimate son of the late King [[Henry II of England|Henry II]] and half-brother to Richard I and John, lands secretly at [[Dover]]. He has been consecrated as the new archbishop of [[Diocese of York|York]] while in [[Tours]], and on his return is arrested by William de Longchamp. Citing the Winchester treaty, John seeks a meeting with William. Geoffrey is freed, William flees and heads to [[Dover Castle]].<ref>Warren, W. L. (1978). ''King John'', p. 42. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. {{ISBN|0-520-03643-3}}.</ref>
* October &ndash; William de Longchamp tries to hold the [[Tower of London]] against John's supporters for three days. He surrenders the Tower and escapes to continue his support for Richard I. On [[October 29]], William is captured when disguised as a female merchant. John orders that he be expelled from the country.<ref>Turner, Ralph V. (2007). ''Longchamp, William de (d. 1197)''. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (May 2007 revised ed.). Oxford University Press.</ref>

==== Asia ====
* [[November 13]] &ndash; [[First Battle of Tarain|Battle of Tarain]]: Sultan [[Muhammad of Ghor]] invades northern [[India]], but is defeated by Rajput forces under [[Prithviraj Chauhan|Prithviraja III]], ruler of [[Ajmer]] and [[Delhi]]. Prithviraj marches against the Ghurid army (some 100,000 men) with infantry, cavalry, and an [[War elephant|elephant force]]. He repulses the Ghurid invasion near [[Taraori]] (some 70 miles of Delhi), Muhammad escapes the battlefield.<ref>Cynthia Talbot (2015). ''The Last Hindu Emperor: Prithviraj and the Indian Past, 1200–2000'', p. 47. {{ISBN|978-1-10711-856-0}}.</ref>
* The [[List of rulers of Toungoo|administration]] of the [[Taungoo]] region (modern [[Myanmar]]) is first recorded. King [[Narapatisithu]] appoints his son-in-law, [[Ananda Thuriya of Kanba Myint|Ananda Thuriya]], as governor of [[Yedashe Township|Kanba Myint]].
* King [[Jayavarman VII]] of the [[Khmer Empire]] sacks the capital of [[Champa]] (approximate date).