Open main menu
Home
Random
Recent changes
Special pages
Community portal
Preferences
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Incubator escapee wiki
Search
User menu
Talk
Dark mode
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Editing
Al-Mu'tasim
(section)
Warning:
You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you
log in
or
create an account
, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.
Anti-spam check. Do
not
fill this in!
==Career under al-Ma'mun== As an adult, Muhammad was commonly called by his ''[[kunya (Arabic)|kunya]]'', Abu Ishaq.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004a|p=xiii}} Al-Tabari describes the adult Abu Ishaq as "fair-complexioned, with a black beard the hair tips of which were red and the end of which was square and streaked with red, and with handsome eyes".{{sfn|Bosworth|1991|p=209}} Other authors stress his physical strength and his love for physical activity—an anecdote recalls how during the Amorium campaign he went ahead of the army riding on a mule and searched in person for a ford across a river—in stark contrast to his more sedentary predecessors and successors. Later authors write that he was almost illiterate, but as the historian [[Hugh N. Kennedy|Hugh Kennedy]] comments, this "would have been most improbable for an Abbasid prince", and most likely reflects his lack of interest in intellectual pursuits.{{sfn|Kennedy|2006|p=215}} ===Activity during the civil war=== [[File:Coin of the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Obverse and reverse of gold coin with Arabic inscriptions|A gold dinar of al-Ma'mun, minted in Egypt in 830/1]] As one of Harun's younger sons, Abu Ishaq was initially of little consequence, and did not figure in the line of succession.{{sfn|Kennedy|2006|p=213}} Soon after Harun died in 809, a [[Fourth Fitna|vicious civil war]] broke out between his elder half-brothers [[al-Amin]] ({{reign|809|813}}) and [[al-Ma'mun]] ({{reign|813|833}}). Al-Amin enjoyed the backing of the traditional Abbasid elites in Baghdad (the ''[[abna al-dawla|abnāʾ al-dawla]]''), while al-Ma'mun was supported by other sections of the ''abnāʾ''. Al-Ma'mun emerged victorious in 813 with the surrender of Baghdad after a [[Siege of Baghdad (812–813)|long siege]] and the death of al-Amin.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004a|pp=147–151}}{{sfn|Gordon|2001|pp=27–28}} Choosing to remain in his stronghold in [[Khurasan]], on the northeastern periphery of the Islamic world, al-Ma'mun allowed his main lieutenants to rule in his stead in Iraq. This resulted in a wave of antipathy towards al-Ma'mun and his "Persian" lieutenants, both among the Abbasid elites in Baghdad and generally in the western regions of the Caliphate, culminating in the nomination of Harun al-Rashid's younger brother [[Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi|Ibrahim]] as anti-caliph at Baghdad in 817. This event made al-Ma'mun realise his inability to rule from afar; bowing to popular reaction, he dismissed or executed his closest lieutenants, and returned in person to Baghdad in 819 to begin the difficult task of rebuilding the state.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004a|pp=151–153}}{{sfn|Gordon|2001|pp=28–29}} Throughout the conflict and its aftermath, Abu Ishaq remained in Baghdad.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004a|p=156}}{{sfn|Gordon|2001|p=25}} Al-Tabari records that Abu Ishaq led the [[Hajj]] pilgrimage in 816, accompanied by many troops and officials, among whom was [[Hamdawayh ibn Ali ibn Isa ibn Mahan]], who had just been appointed to the governorship of the [[Yemen]] and was on his way there. During his stay in Mecca, his troops defeated and captured a pro-[[Alid]]{{efn|The relationship between the Abbasids and the Alids was troubled and underwent many changes. The Alids, claiming descent from [[Muhammad]]'s son-in-law [[Ali]], had been the focal point of several failed revolts directed against the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyads]]—whose regime was widely regarded as oppressive and more concerned with the worldly aspects of the caliphate than the teachings of Islam—inspired by the belief that only a "chosen one from the Family of Muhammad" (''al-riḍā min Āl Muḥammad'') would have the divine guidance necessary to rule according to the [[Quran]] and the [[Sunnah]] and create a truly Islamic government that would bring justice to the Muslim community. However, it was the Abbasid family, who like the Alids formed part of the [[Banu Hashim]] clan and hence were members of the wider "Family of the Prophet", who seized the Caliphate in the [[Abbasid Revolution]].{{sfn|Kennedy|2004a|pp=123–127}}{{sfn|El-Hibri|2010|pp=269–271}} In its aftermath, the Abbasids tried to secure Alid support or at least acquiescence through salaries and honours at court, but some, chiefly the [[Zaydi]] and [[Hasan ibn Ali|Hasanid]] branches of the Alids, continued to reject the Abbasids as usurpers. Thereafter, periods of conciliatory efforts alternated with periods of suppression by the caliphs, provoking Alid uprisings which were followed in turn by large-scale persecutions of the Alids and their supporters.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004a|pp=130–131, 136, 139, 141}}{{sfn|El-Hibri|2010|p=272}}}} leader who had raided the pilgrim caravans.{{sfn|Bosworth|1987|pp=37–39}} He also led the pilgrimage the following year, but no details are known.{{sfn|Bosworth|1987|p=45}} It appears that at least during this time, Abu Ishaq was loyal to al-Ma'mun and his viceroy in Iraq, [[al-Hasan ibn Sahl]],{{sfn|Gordon|2001|p=25}} but, like most members of the dynasty and the ''abnāʾ'' of Baghdad, he supported his half-uncle Ibrahim against al-Ma'mun in 817–819.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004a|p=156}} ===Formation of the Turkish guard=== From {{circa|814/5}}, Abu Ishaq began forming his corps of Turkish troops. The first members of the corps were domestic slaves he bought in Baghdad (the distinguished general [[Itakh]] was originally a cook) whom he trained in the art of war, but they were soon complemented by Turkish slaves sent directly from the fringes of the Muslim world in Central Asia, under an agreement with the local [[Samanid]]{{efn|In {{circa|819}}, the four sons of [[Asad ibn Saman]] were awarded rule over cities in Central Asia ([[Samarkand]], [[Farghana]], [[Shash]], and [[Herat]]) as a reward for their support of al-Ma'mun. These positions became hereditary in the family, marking the start of the rise of the autonomous Samanid dynasty, which by the end of the century controlled all of Khurasan and large swathes of [[Transoxiana]].{{sfn|Frye|1975|pp=136ff.}}}} rulers.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004a|p=156}} This private force was small—it probably numbered between three and four thousand at the time of his accession to the throne—but it was highly trained and disciplined, and made Abu Ishaq a man of power in his own right, as al-Ma'mun increasingly turned to him for assistance.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004a|pp=156–157}}{{sfn|Gordon|2001|p=27}} For the first time, special military uniforms were introduced for this praetorian Turkic guard.{{sfn|Stillman|2003|p=62}} The long civil war shattered the social and political order of the early Abbasid state; the ''abnāʾ al-dawla'', the main political and military pillar of the early Abbasid state, had been much reduced by the civil war.{{sfn|Gordon|2001|p=28}} Along with the ''abnāʾ'', the old Arab families settled in the provinces since the time of the [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]], and the members of the extended Abbasid dynasty formed the core of the traditional elites and largely supported al-Amin. During the remainder of al-Ma'mun's reign they lost their positions in the administrative and military machinery, and with them their influence and power.{{sfn|El-Hibri|2010|p=290}}{{sfn|Kennedy|2004a|p=155}} Furthermore, as the civil war raged in the eastern half of the caliphate and in Iraq, the western provinces slipped from Baghdad's control in a series of rebellions that saw local strongmen claiming various degrees of autonomy or even trying to secede from the caliphate altogether. Although he had overthrown the old elites, al-Ma'mun lacked a large and loyal power base and army, so he turned to "[[new men]]" who commanded their own military retinues. These included the [[Tahirids]], led by [[Abdallah ibn Tahir]], and his own brother Abu Ishaq.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004a|pp=153–155}}{{sfn|El-Hibri|2010|pp=286–288}} Abu Ishaq's Turkish corps was politically useful to al-Ma'mun, who tried to lessen his own dependence on the mostly eastern Iranian leaders, such as the Tahirids, who had supported him in the civil war, and who now occupied the senior positions in the new regime. In an effort to counterbalance their influence, al-Ma'mun granted formal recognition to his brother and his Turkish corps. For the same reason he placed the Arab tribal levies of the [[Mashriq]] (the region of the [[Levant]] and Iraq) in the hands of his son, [[al-Abbas ibn al-Ma'mun|al-Abbas]].{{sfn|El-Hibri|2010|pp=288, 290}} The nature and identity of the "Turkish slave soldiers", as they are commonly described, is a controversial subject; both the ethnic label and the slave status of its members are disputed. Although the bulk of the corps were clearly of servile origin, being either captured in war or purchased as slaves, in the Arabic historical sources they are never referred to as slaves (''[[mamluk|mamlūk]]'' or ''ʿabid''), but rather as ''[[mawali|mawālī]]'' ("clients" or "freedmen") or ''[[ghilman|ghilmān]]'' ("pages"), implying that they were [[manumit]]ted, a view reinforced by the fact that they were paid cash salaries.{{sfn|Kennedy|2001|pp=121–122}}{{sfn|Gordon|2001|pp=6–8}} Although members of the corps are collectively called simply "Turks", ''atrāk'', in the sources,{{sfn|Kennedy|2001|pp=121–122}} prominent early members were neither Turks nor slaves, but rather Iranian vassal princes from Central Asia like [[al-Afshin]], prince of [[Usrushana]], who were followed by their personal retinues (Persian ''chakar'', Arabic ''[[shakiriyya|shākiriyya]]'').{{sfn|Kennedy|2004a|p=157}}{{sfn|El-Hibri|2010|p=296}}{{sfn|Gordon|2001|pp=7–8}} Likewise, the motives behind the formation of the Turkish guard action are unclear, as are the financial means available to Abu Ishaq for the purpose, particularly given his young age. The Turks were closely associated with Abu Ishaq, and are usually interpreted as a private military retinue, something not uncommon in the Islamic world of the time.{{sfn|Gordon|2001|pp=25–26}} As the historian Matthew Gordon points out, the sources provide some indications that the original recruitment of Turks may have been begun or encouraged by al-Ma'mun, as part of the latter's general policy of recruiting Central Asian princes—and their own military retinues—to his court. It is therefore possible that the guard was originally formed on Abu Ishaq's initiative, but that it quickly received caliphal sanction and support, in exchange for being placed under al-Ma'mun's service.{{sfn|Gordon|2001|pp=26, 30–34, 45}} ===Service under al-Ma'mun=== In 819 Abu Ishaq, accompanied by his Turkish guard and other commanders, was sent to suppress a [[Kharijite]] uprising under [[Mahdi ibn Alwan al-Haruri]] around [[Buzurj-Sabur]], north of Baghdad.{{sfn|Bosworth|1987|pp=67–68}} According to a most likely fanciful{{sfn|Bosworth|1991|p=98 (note 281)}} story provided by the 10th-century chronicler [[al-Tabari]], [[Ashinas]], in later years one of the chief Turkish leaders, received his name when he placed himself between a Kharijite lancer about to attack the future caliph, shouting, "Recognize me!" (in [[Persian language|Persian]] "''ashinas ma-ra''").{{sfn|Bosworth|1987|pp=67–68}} In 828, al-Ma'mun appointed Abu Ishaq as governor of [[Egypt in the Middle Ages|Egypt]] and [[Bilad al-Sham|Syria]] in place of Abdallah ibn Tahir, who departed to assume the governorship of [[Khurasan]], while the [[Al-Jazira (caliphal province)|Jazira]] and the frontier zone (''[[thughur|thughūr]]'') with the Byzantine Empire passed to al-Abbas.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004a|p=157}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1987|p=178}} Ibn Tahir had just brought Egypt back under caliphal authority and pacified it after the tumult of the civil war,{{sfn|Kennedy|1998|pp=81–82|ignore-err=yes}} but the situation remained volatile. When Abu Ishaq's deputy in Egypt, [[Umayr ibn al-Walid]], tried to raise taxes, the [[Nile Delta]] and Hawf regions revolted. In 830, Umayr tried to forcibly subdue the rebels, but was ambushed and killed along with many of his troops. With the government troops confined to the capital, [[Fustat]], Abu Ishaq intervened in person, at the head of his 4,000 Turks. The rebels were soundly defeated and their leaders executed.{{sfn|Kennedy|1998|pp=82–83|ignore-err=yes}}{{sfn|Brett|2010|p=553}} In July–September 830, al-Ma'mun, encouraged by perceived Byzantine weakness and suspicious of collusion between Emperor [[Theophilos (emperor)|Theophilos]] ({{reign|829|842}}) and the [[Khurramite]] rebels of [[Babak Khorramdin]], launched the first large-scale invasion of Byzantine territory since the start of the Abbasid civil war, and sacked several Byzantine border fortresses.{{sfn|El-Hibri|2010|p=290}}{{sfn|Treadgold|1988|pp=268, 272–273}} Following his return from Egypt, Abu Ishaq joined al-Ma'mun in his 831 campaign against the Byzantines. After rebuffing Theophilos' offers of peace, the Abbasid army passed through the [[Cilician Gates]] and divided into three columns, with the Caliph, his son al-Abbas, and Abu Ishaq at their head. The Abbasids seized and destroyed several minor forts as well as the town of [[Tyana]], while al-Abbas won a minor skirmish against a Byzantine army led by Theophilos in person, before withdrawing to Syria in September.{{sfn|Bosworth|1987|pp=186–188}}{{sfn|Treadgold|1988|pp=275–276}} Soon after Abu Ishaq's departure from Egypt, the revolt flared up again, this time encompassing both the Arab settlers and the native Christian [[Copts]] under the leadership of Ibn Ubaydus, a descendant of one of the original [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|Arab conquerors]] of the country. The rebels were confronted by the Turks, led by al-Afshin. Al-Afshin conducted a systematic campaign, winning a string of victories and engaging in large-scale executions: many male Copts were executed and their women and children sold into slavery, while the old Arab elites who had ruled the country since the Muslim conquest of Egypt in the 640s were practically annihilated. In early 832, al-Ma'mun came to Egypt, and soon after the last elements of resistance, the Copts of the coastal marshes of the Nile Delta, were subdued.{{sfn|Brett|2010|p=553}}{{sfn|Kennedy|1998|p=83|ignore-err=yes}} Later in the same year, al-Ma'mun repeated his invasion of the Byzantine borderlands, capturing the strategically important fortress of [[Loulon]], a success that consolidated Abbasid control of both exits of the Cilician Gates.{{sfn|Treadgold|1988|pp=278–279}} So encouraged was al-Ma'mun by this victory that he repeatedly rejected Theophilos' ever more generous offers for peace, and publicly announced that he intended to capture [[Constantinople]] itself. Consequently, al-Abbas was dispatched in May to convert the deserted town of Tyana into a military colony and prepare the ground for the westward advance. Al-Ma'mun followed in July, but he suddenly fell ill and died{{efn|The Arabic sources report anecdotal and widely diverging stories about al-Ma'mun's final illness, including a few that claim that he was poisoned by Abu Ishaq, or that his illness was the result of an "unnecessary surgery performed by a physician acting on [Abu Ishaq's] orders".{{sfn|Cooperson|2005|p=121}}}} on 7 August 833.{{sfn|Bosworth|1987|pp=198–199}}{{sfn|Treadgold|1988|pp=279–281}}
Edit summary
(Briefly describe your changes)
By publishing changes, you agree to the
Terms of Use
, and you irrevocably agree to release your contribution under the
CC BY-SA 4.0 License
and the
GFDL
. You agree that a hyperlink or URL is sufficient attribution under the Creative Commons license.
Cancel
Editing help
(opens in new window)