Editing Arachnophobia (section)

==Reasons==
Arachnophobia may be an exaggerated form of an [[instinct]]ive response that helped early humans to survive<ref>{{cite book|author1=Friedenberg, J. |author2=Silverman, G. |title=Cognitive Science: An Introduction to the Study of Mind|publisher=SAGE |year=2005 |isbn=1-4129-2568-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cognitivescience0000frie/page/244 244]–245|url=https://archive.org/details/cognitivescience0000frie|url-access=registration |access-date=2008-10-11}}</ref> or a cultural phenomenon that is most common in predominantly European societies.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Davey, G.C.L.|title=The "Disgusting" Spider: The Role of Disease and Illness in the Perpetuation of Fear of Spiders|journal=Society and Animals |volume=2 |issue=1 |year=1994 |pages=17–25 |doi=10.1163/156853094X00045}}</ref>

===Evolutionary===
{{See also|Scorpion sting|Spider bite|Tick-borne disease}}

An evolutionary reason for the phobia remains unresolved. One view, especially held in [[evolutionary psychology]], is that the presence of [[Spider bite|venomous spiders]] led to the evolution of a fear of spiders, or made the acquisition of a fear of spiders especially easy. However, there is no evidence that during the [[Pleistocene]] there were a sufficient number of venomous African spider fauna to trigger such an evolutionary fear.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Van Keer |first1=Koen | last2=Verhaeghe |first2=Paul |date=2008 |title=Spider related psychology: possible causes and history of rejecting attitudes |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280878268 |journal=Nieuwsbrief van de Belgische Arachnologische Vereniging |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=1}}</ref> Like all traits, there is variability in the intensity of fear of spiders, and those with more intense fears are classified as phobic. Being relatively small, spiders do not fit the usual criterion for a threat in the [[animal|animal kingdom]] where size is a factor, but they can have medically significant [[Venom (poison)|venom]] and/or cause skin irritation with their [[setae]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isbister |first1=Geoffrey |last2=White |first2=Julian |title=Clinical consequences of spider bites: recent advances in our understanding |journal=Toxicon |date=April 2004 |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=477–92 |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2004.02.002 |pmid=15066408 |bibcode=2004Txcn...43..477I |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0041010104000546 |access-date=7 December 2020|url-access=subscription }}</ref> However, a phobia is an irrational fear as opposed to a rational fear.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.webmd.com/anxiety-panic/features/fear-factor-phobias#1|title=The Fear Factor: Phobias}}</ref>

By ensuring that their surroundings were free from spiders, arachnophobes would have had a reduced risk of being bitten in ancestral environments, giving them a slight advantage over non-arachnophobes in terms of survival.{{citation needed|date=June 2023}} However, having a disproportionate fear of spiders in comparison to other, potentially dangerous creatures<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://courses.washington.edu/evpsych/spiders%20are%20special%20-%20EHB%202009.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://courses.washington.edu/evpsych/spiders%20are%20special%20-%20EHB%202009.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|year=2009|doi=10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2008.08.005|title=Spiders are special: fear and disgust evoked by pictures of arthropods|last1=Gerdes|first1=Antje B.M.|last2=Uhl|first2=Gabriele|last3=Alpers|first3=Georg W.|journal=[[Evolution and Human Behavior]]|volume=30|issue=1 |pages=66–73|bibcode=2009EHumB..30...66G }}</ref> present during ''Homo sapiens''' [[Environment of evolutionary adaptedness|environment of evolutionary adaptiveness]] may have had drawbacks.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}

In ''The Handbook of the Emotions'' (1993), psychologist [[Arne Öhman]] studied pairing an [[Classical conditioning|unconditioned]] [[Stimulus (psychology)|stimulus]] with evolutionarily-relevant [[Fight-or-flight response|fear-response]] [[Neutral stimulus|neutral stimuli]] ([[snake]]s and [[spider]]s) versus evolutionarily-irrelevant fear-response neutral stimuli ([[mushroom]]s, [[flower]]s, [[Toy block|physical representation]] of [[polyhedron|polyhedra]], [[firearm]]s, and [[AC power plugs and sockets|electrical outlets]]) on human subjects and found that [[ophidiophobia]] (fear of snakes) and arachnophobia required only one pairing to develop a [[Conditioned emotional response|conditioned response]] while mycophobia, anthophobia, [[phobia]]s of physical representations of polyhedra, firearms, and electrical outlets required multiple pairings and went [[Extinction (psychology)|extinct]] without continued conditioning while the conditioned ophidiophobia and arachnophobia were permanent.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Lewis|editor-first1=Michael|editor-last2=Haviland|editor-first2=Jeannette M.|last=Öhman|first=Arne|title=The Handbook of the Emotions|chapter=Fear and anxiety as emotional phenomena: Clinical phenomenology, evolutionary perspectives, and information-processing mechanisms|year=1993|pages=511–536|place=New York|publisher=[[Guilford Press]]|edition=1st|isbn=978-0898629880}}</ref>

Psychiatrist [[Randolph M. Nesse]] notes that while conditioned fear responses to evolutionarily novel dangerous objects such as electrical outlets is possible, the conditioning is slower because such cues have no [[Multiple drafts model|prewired]] connection to fear, noting further that despite the emphasis of the risks of [[Speed limit|speeding]] and [[drunk driving]] in [[driver's education]], it alone does not provide reliable protection against [[traffic collision]]s and that nearly one-quarter of all deaths in 2014 of people aged 15 to 24 in the United States were in traffic collisions.<ref name="Nesse 2019 pp. 75–76">{{cite book|last=Nesse|first=Randolph|author-link=Randolph M. Nesse|title=Good Reasons for Bad Feelings: Insights from the Frontier of Evolutionary Psychiatry|publisher=[[Dutton (imprint)|Dutton]]|year=2019|pages=75–76|isbn=978-1101985663}}</ref> Nesse, psychiatrist [[Isaac Marks]], and evolutionary biologist [[George Christopher Williams|George C. Williams]] have noted that people with systematically deficient responses to various [[Psychological adaptation|adaptive phobias]] (e.g. arachnophobia, ophidiophobia, [[Fear of falling|basophobia]]) are more [[Carelessness|temperamentally careless]] and [[Accident-proneness|more likely to receive unintentional injuries that are potentially fatal]] and have proposed that such deficient phobia should be classified as "'''hypophobia'''" due to its [[Gene-centered view of evolution|selfish genetic consequences]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nesse|first1=Randolph|author-link1=Randolph M. Nesse|last2=Williams|first2=George C.|author-link2=George Christopher Williams|title=Why We Get Sick: The New Science of Darwinian Medicine|year=1994|pages=212–214|publisher=[[Vintage Books]]|place=New York|isbn=978-0679746744}}</ref><ref name="Nesse 2005 pp. 911–913">{{cite book|last1=Nesse|first1=Randolph M.|author-link1=Randolph M. Nesse|editor-last=Buss|editor-first=David M.|editor-link=David Buss|title=The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology|chapter=32. Evolutionary Psychology and Mental Health|pages=911–913|year=2005|edition=1st|place=[[Hoboken, New Jersey|Hoboken, NJ]]|publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]]|isbn=978-0471264033}}</ref><ref name="Nesse 2016 p. 1014">{{cite book|last1=Nesse|first1=Randolph M.|author-link1=Randolph M. Nesse|editor-last1=Buss|editor-first1=David M.|editor-link1=David Buss|year=2016|orig-year=2005|title=The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology, Volume 2: Integrations|edition=2nd|chapter=43. Evolutionary Psychology and Mental Health|page=1014|place=[[Hoboken, New Jersey|Hoboken, NJ]]|publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]]|isbn=978-1118755808}}</ref><ref name="Nesse 2019 pp. 64–74">{{cite book|last=Nesse|first=Randolph|author-link=Randolph M. Nesse|title=Good Reasons for Bad Feelings: Insights from the Frontier of Evolutionary Psychiatry|publisher=[[Dutton (imprint)|Dutton]]|year=2019|pages=64–74|isbn=978-1101985663}}</ref>

A 2001 study found that people could detect images of spiders among images of flowers and mushrooms more quickly than they could detect images of flowers or mushrooms among images of spiders. The researchers suggested that this was because fast response to spiders was more relevant to human evolution.<ref>Öhman, A., Flykt, A., & Esteves, F. (2001). "Emotion drives attention: Detecting the snake in the grass". ''Journal of Experimental Psychology'': '''130''' (3), 466–478.</ref>

===Cultural===
An alternative view is that the dangers, such as from spiders, are overrated and not sufficient to influence evolution.{{Attribution needed|date=June 2018}} Instead, inheriting phobias would have restrictive and debilitating effects upon survival, rather than being an aid. For some communities, such as in [[Papua New Guinea]] and [[Cambodia]], spiders are included in traditional foods. This suggests arachnophobia may, at least in part, be a cultural rather than genetic trait.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://webs.wichita.edu/depttools/depttoolsmemberfiles/psychology/publications/Wagener%20&%20Zettle%20Paper.pdf |title=Targeting Fear of Spiders With Control-, Acceptance-, and Information-Based Approaches |author1=Wagener, Alexandra L. |author2=Zettle, Robert D. |year=2011 |journal=The Psychological Record |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=77–91 |doi=10.1007/BF03395747 |s2cid=44385538 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614031029/http://webs.wichita.edu/depttools/depttoolsmemberfiles/psychology/publications/Wagener%20%26%20Zettle%20Paper.pdf |archive-date=2011-06-14 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Fears, Phobias, and Preparedness: Toward an Evolved Module of Fear and Fear Learning|url=http://instruct.uwo.ca/psychology/371g/Ohman2001.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://instruct.uwo.ca/psychology/371g/Ohman2001.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|pmid=11488376|year=2001|last1=Ohman|first1=A|last2=Mineka|first2=S|volume=108|issue=3|pages=483–522|journal=Psychological Review|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.108.3.483}}</ref>

Stories about spiders in the media often contain errors and use sensationalistic vocabulary, which could contribute to the fear of spiders.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The global spread of misinformation on spiders |author1=Mammola, Stefano |display-authors=etal |year=2022 |journal=Current Biology |volume=32 |issue=16 |pages= R871–R873|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2022.07.026|pmid=35998593 |s2cid=251727654 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022CBio...32.R871M |hdl=10400.3/6470 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>