Editing Arcadius (section)

== Reign ==

=== Early reign ===
[[File:32-manasses-chronicle.jpg|thumb|The emperors Arcadius, Honorius and Theodosius I depicted in the 12th century [[Constantine Manasses|Manasses Chronicle]].]]
Both of Theodosius's sons were young and inexperienced, susceptible to being dominated by ambitious subordinates.<ref>Goldsworthy, p. 290</ref> In 394 Arcadius briefly exercised independent power with the help of his advisors in [[Constantinople]], when his father Theodosius went west to fight [[Arbogastes]] and [[Eugenius]].<ref name="O">Kazhdan, 1991</ref> Theodosius died on 17 January 395, and Arcadius, still aged only 17, fell under the influence of the [[praetorian prefect of the East]], [[Rufinus (consul 392)|Rufinus]]. Honorius, aged 10, was consigned to the guardianship of the ''[[magister militum]]'' [[Stilicho]].<ref>Goldsworthy, p. 290; Jones, p. 779</ref> Rufinus ambitiously sought to marry his daughter to Arcadius and thereby gain the prestige of being the emperor's father-in-law.<ref>Bury, p. 62</ref> However, when the prefect was called away to business in [[Antioch]] (where according to [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]], Rufinus had Lucianus, the ''[[comes orientis]]'', flogged to death with whips loaded with lead),<ref>Jones, p. 779; Bury, p. 63</ref> Arcadius was shown a painting of [[Aelia Eudoxia]], the daughter of the deceased [[Franks|Frankish]] ''[[magister militum per orientem]]'', [[Bauto]]. Seeing the young emperor's interest in Eudoxia, [[Eutropius (consul 399)|Eutropius]], the eunuch ''[[praepositus sacri cubiculi]]'', arranged for the two to meet. Arcadius fell in love and a marriage was quickly arranged, with the ceremony performed on 27 April 395.<ref>Bury, p. 63</ref> According to Zosimus, Rufinus assumed that his daughter was still to be the bride, only discovering otherwise when the nuptial procession went to Eudoxia's residence rather than his own.<ref>Zosimus, 5.3.5</ref> The rise of Eudoxia, facilitated by a general who was a rival of Rufinus, demonstrates the shifting of the centres of power in the eastern court.<ref>Lee, p. 90; Long, p. 10</ref> Such jostling for influence over the malleable emperor would be a recurring feature of Arcadius's reign.<ref>Nicholson, p. 119; Goldsworthy, p. 290</ref>

{{Main|Revolt of Alaric I}}
The first crisis facing the young Arcadius was the [[Revolt of Alaric I|Gothic revolt]] in 395, under the command of [[Alaric I]] ({{Reign|395|410}}), who sought to take advantage of the accession of two inexperienced Roman emperors.<ref>Goldsworthy, p. 291</ref> As Alaric marched towards Constantinople, plundering [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]] and [[Thracia|Thrace]], the eastern court could offer no response, as the majority of its army had gone to Italy with Theodosius and was now in the hands of Stilicho.<ref>Goldsworthy, p. 292</ref> Perhaps sensing an opportunity to exercise power in the eastern half of the empire as well, Stilicho declared that Theodosius had made him guardian over both his sons. He traveled eastward, ostensibly to face Alaric, leading both his own forces and the Gothic mercenaries whom Theodosius had taken west in the civil war with Eugenius. Arcadius and Rufinus felt more threatened by Stilicho than by Alaric;{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=79}} upon landing in [[Thessaly]] Stilicho received an imperial order to send along the eastern regiments, but himself to proceed no further. Stilicho complied, falling back to [[Salona]] while [[Gainas]] led the mercenaries to Constantinople.<ref>Goldsworthy, p. 292; Bury, pp. 64–66</ref> Arcadius and his entourage received Gainas in the Campus Martius, a parade ground adjacent to the city, on 27 November 395. There Rufinus was suddenly assassinated by the Goths, on the orders of Stilicho and possibly with the support of Eutropius.<ref>Cameron, p. 319; Jones, p. 780; Bury, p. 66</ref> The murder certainly created an opportunity for Eutropius and for Arcadius's wife, Eudoxia, who took Rufinus's place as advisors and guardians of the emperor.<ref>Goldsworthy, p. 292; Gibbon, p. 1039</ref>

While Eutropius consolidated his hold on power in the capital, the distracted government still failed to react to the presence of Alaric in [[Achaea (Roman province)|Greece]].<ref>Treadgold, p. 81; Goldsworthy, p. 292</ref> At first Eutropius may have coordinated with Stilicho around the defence of Illyricum; by 397, when Stilicho personally led a blockade that compelled Alaric to retreat into [[Epirus]], the atmosphere of the eastern court had changed.<ref>Long, p. 10</ref> As neither Arcadius nor Eutropius was keen to have Stilicho intervening in the affairs of the eastern empire, they provided no further military aid to Stilicho, who then abandoned the blockade of the Visigoths.<ref>Goldsworthy, p. 292; Bury, p. 68</ref> At Eutropius's urging, Arcadius declared Stilicho to be a ''[[public enemy|hostis publicus]]'', and came to an arrangement with Alaric, making him ''[[magister militum per Illyricum]]''.<ref>Goldsworthy, p. 292; Long. p. 10</ref> At around the same time, the eastern court persuaded [[Gildo]], the ''magister utriusque militiae per Africam'', to transfer his allegiance from Honorius to Arcadius, causing relations between the two imperial courts to deteriorate further.<ref>Long, p. 11</ref>

Eutropius's influence lasted four years, during which time he sought to marginalise the military and promote the civilian offices within the bureaucracy. He brought to trial two prominent military officers, [[Timasius]] and [[Abundantius (consul)|Abundantius]].<ref>Lee, p. 91</ref> He also had Arcadius introduce two administrative innovations: the running of the ''[[cursus publicus]]'' (office of postmaster general) and the office in charge of manufacturing military equipment was transferred from the praetorian prefects to the ''[[magister officiorum]]'' (master of offices). Secondly, the role that Eutropius held, the ''[[praepositus sacri cubiculi]]'' (grand chamberlain) was given the rank of ''[[Vir illustris|illustris]]'', and therefore equal in rank to the praetorian prefects.<ref>Bury, p. 71</ref> In the autumn of 397 he issued a law in Arcadius's name, targeting the Roman military, where any conspiracy involving soldiers or the barbarian regiments against persons holding the rank of ''illustris'' was considered to be treason, with the conspirators to be sentenced to death, and their descendants to be deprived of [[Roman Citizenship|citizenship]].<ref>Bury, p. 74</ref>

In 398, Eutropius led a successful campaign against the [[Huns]] in [[Roman Armenia]]. The following year he convinced Arcadius to grant him the [[Roman consul|consulship]], triggering protests across the empire. For traditionalists, the granting of the consulship to a eunuch and former slave was an insult to the Roman system and other contemporary Romans, and the western court refused to recognize him as consul.<ref>Long, p. 11; Goldsworthy, p. 293</ref> The crisis escalated when the [[Ostrogoths]] who had been settled in [[Asia Minor]] by Theodosius I revolted, demanding the removal of Eutropius.

{{Main|Gothic Revolt of Tribigild}}
The emperor sent two forces against [[Tribigild]], the rebel leader; the first, under an officer named Leo, was defeated. The second force was commanded by Gainas, rival of Eutropius in the Eastern court. He returned to Arcadius and argued that the Ostrogoths could not be defeated, and that it would be sensible to accede to their demand.<ref>Cameron, p. 324; Lee, pp. 91–92; Long, p. 12</ref> Arcadius viewed this proposal with displeasure, but was convinced to support it by Eudoxia, who wished to take Eutropius's place as the main influence upon the emperor.<ref>Long, p. 12; Bury, p. 84</ref> Arcadius therefore dismissed Eutropius and sent him into exile (17 August 399), before recalling him to face trial and execution during the autumn of 399.<ref>Long, p. 12</ref> The imperial edict issued by Arcadius detailing Eutropius's banishment survives:

<blockquote>The Emperors Arcadius and Honorius, Augusti, to Aurelian, Praetorian Prefect. We have added to our treasury all the property of Eutropius, who was formerly the ''Praepositus sacri cubiculi'', having stripped him of his splendour, and delivered the consulate from the foul stain of his tenure, and from the recollection of his name and the base filth thereof =; so that, all his acts having been repealed, all time may be dumb concerning him; and that the blot of our age may not appear by the mention of him; and that those who by their valour and wounds extend the Roman borders or guard the same by equity in the maintenance of law, may not groan over the fact that the divine reward of consulship has been befouled and defiled by a filthy monster. Let him learn that he has been deprived of the rank of the patriciate and all lower dignities that he stained with the perversity of his character. That all the statues, all the images—whether of bronze or marble, or painted in colours, or of any other material used in art—we command to be abolished in all cities, towns, private and public places, that they may not, as a brand of infamy on our age, pollute the gaze of beholders. Accordingly under the conduct of faithful guards let him be taken to the island of Cyprus, whither let your sublimity know that he has been banished; so that therein guarded with most watchful diligence he may be unable to work confusion with his mad designs.<ref>Bury, pp. 85–86</ref></blockquote>

=== Later reign ===
[[File:Marble Bust of Emperor from Late Antiquity, c. 400 AD (28735071955).jpg|alt=Portrait head of Emperor, most likely  Arcadius, Honorius, or Theodosius I. C. Late fourth to early fifth century A.D.|thumb|Portrait head of an emperor, potentially Arcadius<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lenaghan |first=J. |date=2012 |title=Portrait head of Emperor: Arcadius, Gratian, or Theodosius I? From Rome. Late fourth to early fifth century.|url=http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.php?id=961 |access-date= |website=Last Statues of Antiquity |id=LSA-589}}</ref>]]
With Eutropius's fall from power, [[Gainas]] sought to take advantage of Arcadius's current predicament.{{sfn|Cameron|1993|pp=227–231}} He joined the rebel Ostrogoths, and, in a face to face meeting with Arcadius, forced the emperor to make him ''magister militum praesentalis'' and Consul designate for 401.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=84}}{{sfn|Cameron|1993|p=327}} Arcadius also acquiesced when Gainas asked for the dismissal of further officials, such as the [[Praefectus urbi|urban prefect]] [[Aurelianus (consul 400)|Aurelianus]], as well as a place for settlement for his troops in Thrace.<ref>Lee, p. 92; Gibbon, pp. 1158–1159</ref> However, Arcadius refused to agree to Gainas's demand for an [[Arianism|Arian]] church in Constantinople for his Gothic mercenaries, following the advice of [[John Chrysostom]], the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Archbishop of Constantinople]].<ref>Theodoret ''Ecclesiastical History'' 5.32.6, Cameron, p. 327; Treadgold, p. 84; Bury, p. 87</ref>

By July 400, the actions of Gainas had irritated a significant portion of the population of Constantinople to the point that a general riot broke out in the capital.<ref>Cameron, p. 333; Bury p. 88</ref> Although Gainas had stationed his troops outside of the capital walls, he was either unable or unwilling to bring them into the capital when many Goths in the city were hunted down and attacked.{{sfn|Cameron|1993|pp=207–209}} As many as 7,000 Goths were killed in the rioting; those who took refuge in a church were stoned and burned to death, after they received the emperor's permission, nor was it condemned by the Archbishop of Constantinople, John Chrysostom.<ref>Cameron, p. 231; Bury, p. 88; Burns, p. 173; Lee, p. 92</ref>

Although initially staying his hand (probably through the intervention of the new Praetorian Prefect of the East [[Caesarius (consul)|Caesarius]]),{{sfn|Cameron|1993|pp=231–232}} Gainas eventually withdrew with his Gothic mercenaries into Thrace and rebelled against Arcadius. He attempted to take his forces across the Hellespont into Asia, but was intercepted and defeated by [[Fravitta]], another Goth who held the position of ''magister militum praesentalis''. Following his defeat, Gainas fled to the [[Danube]] with his remaining followers, but was ultimately defeated and killed by [[Uldin]] the [[Hun]] in Thrace.<ref>Burns, p. 173; Cameron, p. 331; Lee, p. 92</ref>

With the fall of Gainas, the next conflict emerged between Eudoxia and John Chrysostom. The Archbishop was a stern, ascetic individual, who was a vocal critic of all displays of extravagant wealth. But his ire tended to focus especially on wealthy women, and their use of clothing, jewellery and makeup as being vain and frivolous.<ref>Liebeschuetz, pp. 231–232; Bury, pp. 91–93</ref> Eudoxia assumed that Chrysostom's denunciations of extravagance in feminine dress were aimed at her.<ref>Liebeschuetz, p. 236</ref> As the tensions between the two escalated, Chrysostom, who felt that Eudoxia had used her imperial connections to obtain the possessions of the wife of a condemned senator, preached a sermon in 401 in which Eudoxia was openly called [[Jezebel]], the infamous wife of the Israelite king [[Ahab]].<ref>Liebeschuetz, p. 233</ref> Eudoxia retaliated by supporting Bishop [[Severian of Gabala]] in his conflict with Chrysostom. As Chrysostom was very popular in the capital, riots erupted in favour of the Archbishop, forcing Arcadius and Eudoxia to publicly back down and beg Chrysostom to revoke Severian's excommunication.<ref>Liebeschuetz, p. 233; Bury, pp. 96–97</ref>

Then in 403, Eudoxia saw another chance to strike against the Archbishop, when she threw her support behind [[Theophilus I of Alexandria|Theophilus of Alexandria]] who presided over a [[synod]] in 403 (the [[Synod of the Oak]]) to charge Chrysostom with heresy. Although Arcadius originally supported Chrysostom, the Archbishop's decision not to participate caused Arcadius to change his mind and support Theophilus, resulting in Chrysostom's deposition and banishment.<ref>Liebeschuetz, pp. 237–239</ref> He was called back by Arcadius almost immediately, as the people started rioting over his departure, even threatening to burn the imperial palace.<ref>{{cite book|author=Socrates Scholasticus|editor=Schaff, Philip|editor-link=Philip Schaff|editor2=Wace, Henry |translator=Schaff, Philip |translator2=Wace, Henry |others=Zenos, A. C. (rev., notes)|title=Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers |volume=II: Socrates and Sozomenus Ecclesiastical Histories|url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf202.html|access-date=29 March 2007|chapter=Book VI, Chapter XVI: Sedition on Account of John Chrysostom's Banishment|chapter-url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf202.ii.ix.xvii.html|author-link=Socrates of Constantinople|page=149|publisher=Hendrickson Publishers|location=Peabody, MA|isbn=1-56563-118-8|edition=reprint|year=1995|orig-year=1890}}</ref> There was an earthquake the night of his arrest, which Eudoxia took for a sign of [[God]]'s anger, prompting her to ask Arcadius for John's reinstatement.<ref name="OCA">{{cite web|url=http://ocafs.oca.org/FeastSaintsLife.asp?FSID=103292|title=St John Chrysostom the Archbishop of Constantinople|access-date=29 March 2007|publisher=Orthodox Church in America}}</ref>

Peace was short-lived. In September 403 a silver statue of Eudoxia was erected in the [[Augustaion]], near the ''[[Hagia Sophia|Magna Ecclesia]]'' church. Chrysostom, who was conducting a mass at the time, denounced the noisy dedication ceremonies as pagan and spoke against the Empress in harsh terms: "Again [[Herodias]] raves; again she is troubled; she dances again; and again desires to receive John's head in a charger",<ref>Socrates Scholasticus, op cit [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf202.ii.ix.xix.html "Chapter XVIII: Of Eudoxia's Silver Statue"], p. 150.</ref> an allusion to the events surrounding the death of [[John the Baptist]]. This time Arcadius was unwilling to overlook the insult to his wife; a new synod was called in early 404 where Chrysostom was condemned. Arcadius hesitated until Easter to enforce the sentence, but Chrysostom refused to go, even after Arcadius sent in a squad of soldiers to escort him into exile. Arcadius procrastinated, but by 20 June 404, the emperor finally managed to get the Archbishop to submit, and he was taken away to his place of banishment, this time to [[Abkhazia]] in the [[Caucasus]].<ref>Bury, pp. 100–102</ref> Eudoxia did not get to enjoy her victory for long, dying later that year.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=86}}