Editing Audience analysis (section)

==Depth of analysis==
There are often a large number of factors to consider, thus making it hard for the writer to completely assess the target audience within a reasonable amount of time.  Therefore, an attempt to reach the most accurate and effective audience analysis, in a timely manner, is vital to the technical communication process. The depth of the audience analysis also depends on the size of the intended audience.

Because people constantly change in terms of technological exposure, the audience to be analyzed constantly changes.  As a result, the technical communicator must consider the possibility that their audience changes over time. An article in the [[European Journal of Communication]] examined the changes experienced by audience research due to the growing range of information and communication technologies.  The article pointed out that there are three main challenges that drive the search for methodological rigor: the difference between what people say they do and what they do in practice, the interpretation of the text by the reader,  and why the received meanings of television matter in everyday life.<ref>Livingstone, Sonia.  "The Challenge of Changing Audiences, Or What is the Audience Researcher to do in the Age of the Internet?."  ''European Journal of Communication.''  19 (2004):  75-86.</ref>  An absolutely perfect audience analysis is generally impossible to create, and it is similarly difficult to create an analysis that is relevant for a long period of time. Revising and rewriting an audience analysis is often required in order to maintain the relevance of the analysis.

===Specific applications of audience analysis===

R. C. Goldworthy, C. B. Mayhorn and A. W. Meade, dealt with the hazard mitigation, including warning development, validation, and dissemination as an important aspect of [[product safety]] and workplace and [[consumer protection]] in their article "Warnings in Manufacturing:  Improving Hazard-Mitigation Messaging through Audience Analysis". In this study, they focused on the potential role of [[latent class analysis]] in regards to the audience analysis performed in hazard communication and [[warning message]]s. Their qualitative study involved 700 adult and adolescent participants who answered a structured questionnaire about prescription medication history and behaviors. The identification of latent classes based on behaviors of interest facilitated tailoring hazard-mitigation efforts to specific groups. Although their study is limited, in that all participants were between the ages of 12 and 44 and were from heavily populated urban areas (so the generalizability of the data to rural settings has not been generated), this study establishes that latent class analysis can play a vital role. They conclude that latent analysis is a worthwhile addition to the analytical toolbox because it allows, in this case, risk reduction and hazard-mitigation efforts to tailor interventions to a diverse target audience. For the technical writer, analyzing latent classes would enable them to better identify homogeneous groups within the broader population of readers and across many variables to tailor messages to these better-specified groups.<ref>Goldworthy, Richard C., Christopher B. Mayhorn, and Adam W. Meade. "Warnings in Manufacturing:  Improving Hazard-Mitigation Messaging through Audience Analysis". ''Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing and Service Industries''. 20 (2010):  484-499.</ref>

The population of older adults is growing, and Gail Lippincott asserts that technical communicators have not accounted for the needs of these audiences, nor drawn from the wide range of research on aging. In her article "Gray Matters: Where are the Technical Communicator in Research and Design for Aging Audiences?", Lippincott suggests four challenges that practitioners, educators, and researchers must undertake to accommodate older adults' physical, cognitive, and emotional needs: They must refine the demographic variable of age, operationalize age to enrich current methods of audience analysis, investigate multidisciplinary sources of aging research, and participate in research on aging by offering our expertise in document design and communication strategies. Lippincott acknowledges that there is so much more research that must be done in this area, for "the body of literature on older adults and computer use is relatively small."  Lippincott provides insight into an often overlooked audience that technical communicators must learn to address.<ref>Lippincott, Gail.  "Gray Matters:  Where Are the Technical Communicators in Research and Design for Aging Audiences?" ''IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication.''  47 (2004):  157-170.</ref>

Teresa Lipus<ref>Of Trus Joist, a Weyerhaeuser Business in Boise, Idaho</ref> argues that devoting company resources to produce adequate instructions for international users is both practical and ethical.  She also provides a brief overview of the consumer protection measures that leading U.S. trade partners have implemented.  She also presents the following guidelines for developing adequate instructions for international audiences:

# Define the scope of the instructions
# Identify the audience
# Describe the product's functions and limitations
# Identify the constraints
# Use durable materials

She offers tips for getting and keeping the attention of the audience:

# Organize the information
# Structure the information
# Design the page layout

For aiding the comprehension of the readers, Lipus suggests that technical communicators write readable texts and design effective graphics.  In an effort to motivate compliance, she recommend making the instructions relevant and credible and to improve information recall by organizing the information into small meaningful groups and providing concise summaries and on-product reminders.  When presenting safety information, Lipus says to not only include the necessary safety messages but to also design effective safety messages.  Before distributing instructions, they must be evaluated.  She recommends testing the product and the accuracy of the instructions, communicating using means that reach users, and continuing to test and to inform users even after marketing. She explains that because the potential for making subtle but offensive errors is so high in international dealings, a language-sensitive native speaker from the target culture should always review the instructions before they are distributed to consumers.  Although Lipus provides information in analyzing and writing for an international audience regarding consumer protection, the strategies offered can be applied to document preparation in general.<ref>Lipus, Teresa. "International Consumer Protection:  Writing Adequate Instructions for Global Audiences". ''Journal of Technical Writing and Communication''. 36 (2006):  75-91.</ref>

Jenni Swenson, Helen Constantinides, and Laura Gurak, in their case study, address the problem of defining medical web site credibility and identifying the gap in web design research that fails to recognize or address specific audience needs in web site design. The information they gathered assisted the researchers in identifying and fulfilling specific audience needs, describing a framework, and presenting a case study in audience-driven Web design.  The researchers used the qualitative method of conducting a survey to find the audience of the Algenix, Inc. Web site.  Algenix is a biomedical liver disease management company.  The study showed that an audience-driven design would do more to reassure the audience that personal information would not be collected without consent as well as provide clear policies of security, privacy, and data collection.  The survey informed the researchers that the audience would also like to experience a site with minimal graphics and short download times and one that is intuitive and easy to navigate.  This study illustrates how an audience analysis should not only address what the users are able to do but also what they, as the users, would prefer.<ref>Swenson, Jenni, Helen Constantinides, and Laura Gurak.  "Audience-driven Web Design: An Application to Medical Web Sites". ''Technical Communication''. 43 (2002): 340-353.</ref>

In the article "Real Readers, Implied Readers, and Professional Writers: Suggested Research", Charlotte Thralls, Nancy Ror, and Helen Rothschild Ewald of Iowa State University define "real readers" versus "implied readers". The real reader is a concrete reality and determines the writer's purpose and persona.  A writer who perceives an audience as real tends to conceive of readers as living persons with specific attitudes and demographic characteristics. Therefore, the writer's task is to accommodate the real reader by analyzing this reader's needs and deferring to them.  The implied reader, on the other hand, is a mental construct or role which the actual reader is invited to enter, even though the characteristics embodied in that role may not perfectly fit his or her attitudes or reactions. When the reader is implied, the writer invents and determines the audience within the text. The researchers assert that writers must appreciate the complex interplay that may take place between the real and implied representations of the reader in every document. The researchers discuss how their study was conducted for the sole purpose of developing a hypothesis for further study: Are professional writers aware of real and implied readers; does a writer's way of perceiving a reader affect contextual development; do shifts occur in writers' conceptions of readers; are writers' perceptions of readers linked to a sense of genre and explained by principles of cognitive processing?<ref>Thralls, Charlotte, Nancy Roundy Byler, and Helen Rothschild Ewald. "Real Readers, Implied Readers, and Professional Writers: Suggested Research". ''Journal of Business Communication''. 25 (1998): 47-65.</ref>