Editing Ayodhya (section)

== History ==
[[File:Ayodhya-jain-teracotta.jpg|thumb|Terracotta image of Jain [[Tirthankar]] dated fourth century BCE excavated from Ayodhya]]
[[File:Ayodhya Nagri.jpg|thumb|Gold carving depiction of the legendary Ayodhya at the [[Ajmer Jain temple]]]]
{{See also|Ayodhya (legendary city)#Historicity}}

Ancient Indian [[Sanskrit]]-language epics, such as the ''[[Ramayana]]'' and the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' mention a [[Ayodhya (legendary city)|legendary city called Ayodhya]], which was the capital of the legendary [[Ikshvaku dynasty|Ikshvaku]] kings of Kosala, including Rama.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=7}} Neither these texts, nor the earlier Sanskrit texts such as the [[Vedas]], mention a city called Saketa. Non-religious, non-legendary ancient Sanskrit texts, such as Panini's ''Ashtadhyayi'' and Patanjali's commentary on it, do mention Saketa.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=7}} The later Buddhist text ''[[Mahavastu]]'' describes Saketa as the seat of the Ikshvaku king Sujata, whose descendants established the [[Shakya]] capital [[Kapilavastu (ancient city)|Kapilavastu]].{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=5}}

The earliest of the Buddhist [[Pali canon|Pali-language texts]] and the Jain Prakrit-language texts mention a city called Saketa (Sageya or Saeya in Prakrit) as an important city of the [[Kosala]] [[mahajanapada]].{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|pp=5–6}} Topographical indications in both Buddhist and Jain texts suggest that Saketa is the same as the present-day Ayodhya.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=2}} For example, according to the ''[[Samyutta Nikaya]]'' and the ''[[Vinaya Pitaka]]'', Saketa was located at a distance of six ''[[yojana]]''s from [[Shravasti]]. The ''Vinaya Pitaka'' mentions that a big river was located between the two cities, and the ''[[Sutta Nipata]]'' mentions Saketa as the first halting place on the southward road from Shravasti to [[Pratishthana]].{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=5}}

Fourth century onwards, multiple texts, including Kalidasa's ''[[Raghuvamsha]]'', mention Ayodhya as another name for Saketa.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|pp=6–7}} The later Jain canonical text ''Jambudvipa-Pannati'' describes a city called Viniya (or Vinita) as the birthplace of [[Rishabha|Lord Rishabhanatha]], and associates this city with [[Bharata Chakravartin]]; the ''[[Kalpa Sutra|Kalpa-Sutra]]'' describes Ikkhagabhumi as the birthplace of [[Rishabhanatha|Rishabhadev]]. The index on the Jain text ''Paumachariya'' clarifies that Aojjha (Aodhya), Kosala-puri ("Kosala city"), Viniya, and Saeya (Saketa) are synonyms. The post-Canonical Jain texts also mention "Aojjha"; for example, the ''Avassagacurni'' describes it as the principal city of Kosala, while the ''Avassaganijjutti'' names it as the capital of [[King Sagara|Sagara Chakravartin]].{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=6}} The ''Avassaganijjutti'' implies that Viniya ("Vinia"), Kosalapuri ("Kosalapura"), and Ikkhagabhumi were distinct cities, naming them as the capitals of Abhinamdana, Sumai, and Usabha respectively. Abhayadeva's commentary on the ''Thana Sutta'', another post-canonical text, identifies Saketa, Ayodhya, and Vinita as one city.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=6}}

According to one theory, the legendary Ayodhya city is the same as the historical city of Saketa and the present-day Ayodhya. According to another theory, the legendary Ayodhya is a mythical city,{{sfn|Arya|1990|p=44}} and the name "Ayodhya" came to be used for the Saketa (present-day Ayodhya) only around the fourth century, when a [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] emperor (probably [[Skandagupta]]) moved his capital to Saketa, and renamed it to Ayodhya after the legendary city.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=12}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bhagwan Singh Josh |author-link=Bhagwan Singh Josh |last2=Bipan Chandra |author-link2=Bipan Chandra |last3=Harbans Mukhia |author-link3=Harbans Mukhia |last4=K. N. Panikkar |author-link4=K. N. Panikkar |last5=Madhavan K. Palat |author-link5=Madhavan K. Palat |last6=Mridula Mukherjee |author-link6=Mridula Mukherjee |last7=Muzaffar Alam |author-link7=Muzaffar Alam |last8=R. Champakalakshmi |author-link8=R. Champakalakshmi |last9=Rajan Gurukkal |author-link9=Rajan Gurukkal |last10=Romila Thapar |author-link10=Romila Thapar |last11=Sarvepalli Gopal |author-link11=Sarvepalli Gopal |display-authors=etal |year=1990 |title=The Political Abuse of History: Babri Masjid-Rama Janmabhumi Dispute |journal=Social Scientist |volume=18 |issue=1/2 |pages=76–81 |doi=10.2307/3517330 |jstor=3517330}}</ref> Alternative, but less likely, theories state that Saketa and Ayodhya were two adjoining cities, or that Ayodhya was a locality within the Saketa city.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=3}}

=== As Saketa ===
Archaeological and literary evidence suggests that the site of present-day Ayodhya had developed into an urban settlement by the fifth or sixth-century BC.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=2}} The site is identified as the location of the ancient [[Sāketa|Saketa city]], which probably emerged as a marketplace located at the junction of the two important roads, the [[Shravasti]]-[[Pratishthana]] north–south road, and the [[Rajagriha]]-[[Varanasi]]-Shravasti-[[Taxila]] east–west road.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=13}} Ancient Buddhist texts, such as ''[[Samyutta Nikaya]]'', state that Saketa was located in the [[Kosala]] kingdom ruled by [[Prasenajit]] (or Pasenadi; c. sixth–5th century BC), whose capital was located at Shravasti.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=5, 13}} The later Buddhist commentary ''Dhammapada-[[atthakatha]]'' states that the Saketa town was established by merchant Dhananjaya (the father of [[Visakha]]), on the suggestion of king Prasenajit.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=5}} The ''[[Digha Nikaya]]'' describes it as one of the six large cities of India.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=5}} The early Buddhist canonical texts mention [[Shravasti]] as the capital of Kosala, but the later texts, such as the Jain texts ''Nayadhammakahao'' and ''Pannavana Suttam'', and the Buddhist [[Jataka]]s, mention Saketa as the capital of Kosala.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=2,5–6}}

As a busy town frequented by travellers, it appears to have become important for preachers such as [[Gautama Buddha]] and [[Mahavira]].{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=13}} The ''Samyutta Nikaya'' and ''[[Anguttara Nikaya]]'' mention that Buddha resided at Saketa at times.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=5}} The early Jain canonical texts (such as ''Antagada-dasao'', ''Anuttarovavaiya-dasao'', and ''Vivagasuya'') state that Mahavira visited Saketa; ''Nayadhammakahao'' states that [[Parshvanatha]] also visited Saketa.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=6}} The Jain texts, both canonical and post-canonical, describe Ayodhya as the location of various shrines, such as those of snake, [[yaksha]] Pasamiya, Muni Suvratasvamin, and Surappia.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=6}}

It is not clear what happened to Saketa after Kosala was conquered by the [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] emperor [[Ajatashatru]] around fifth century BC. There is lack of historical sources about the city's situation for the next few centuries: it is possible that the city remained a commercial centre of secondary importance, but did not grow into a political centre of Magadha, whose capital was located at [[Pataliputra]].{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=14}} Several Buddhist buildings may have been constructed in the town during the rule of the [[Maurya Empire|Maurya]] emperor [[Ashoka]] in the third century BC: these buildings were probably located on the present-day human-made mounds in Ayodhya.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|pp=14–18}} Excavations at Ayodhya have resulted in the discovery of a large brick wall, identified as a fortification wall by archaeologist [[B. B. Lal (archaeologist)|B. B. Lal]].{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=2}} This wall probably erected in the last quarter of the third-century BC.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|pp=19–20}}

[[File:Dhanadeva Ayodhya inscription.jpg|thumb|The [[Dhanadeva-Ayodhya inscription]], first-century BC]]
[[File:Muladeva coin Kosala.jpg|thumb|Coin of ruler Muladeva, of the [[Deva dynasty (Saketa)|Deva dynasty]] minted in Ayodhya, Kosala. Obv: ''Muladevasa'', elephant to left facing symbol. Rev: Wreath, above symbol, below snake.]]
After the decline of the Maurya empire, Saketa appears to have come under the rule of [[Pushyamitra Shunga]]. The first century BC [[Ayodhya Inscription of Dhana|inscription of Dhanadeva]] suggests that he appointed a governor there.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=20}} The ''[[Yuga Purana]]'' mentions Saketa as the residence of a governor, and describes it as being attacked by a combined force of [[Yavanas|Greeks]], [[Mathura]]s, and [[Panchala]]s.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|pp=18–19}} Patanjali's commentary on Panini also refers to the Greek siege of Saketa.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=7,19}}

Later, Saketa appears to have become part of a small, independent kingdom.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=18}} The ''Yuga Purana'' states that Saketa was ruled by seven powerful kings after the retreat of the Greeks.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=20}} The ''Vayu Purana'' and the ''Brahmanda Purana'' also state that seven powerful kings ruled in the capital of Kosala. The historicity of these kings is attested by the discovery of the coins of the [[Deva dynasty (Saketa)|Deva dynasty]] kings, including Dhanadeva, whose inscription describes him as the king of Kosala (''Kosaladhipati'').{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=21}} As the capital of Kosala, Saketa probably eclipsed Shravasti in importance during this period. The east–west route connecting Pataliputra to [[Taxila]], which earlier passed through Saketa and Shravasti, appears to have shifted southwards during this period, now passing through Saketa, [[Ahichhatra]] and [[Kanyakubja]].{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=22}}

After the Deva kings, Saketa appears to have been ruled by the [[Datta dynasty|Datta]], [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]], and Mitra kings, although the chronological order of their rule is uncertain. Bakker theorises that the [[Datta dynasty|Dattas]] succeeded the Deva kings in the mid-1st century AD, and their kingdom was annexed to the Kushan Empire by [[Kanishka]].{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=24}} The Tibetan text ''Annals of Li Country'' (c. 11th century) mentions that an alliance of king Vijayakirti of [[Khotan]], king Kanika, the king of Gu-zan, and the king of Li, marched to India and captured the So-ked city. During this invasion, Vijayakirti took several Buddhist relics from Saketa, and placed them in the stupa of Phru-no. If Kanika is identified as Kanishka, and So-ked as Saketa, it appears that the invasion of Kushans and their allies led to the destruction of the Buddhist sites at Saketa.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=25}}

Nevertheless, Saketa appears to have remained a prosperous town during the Kushan rule.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=25}} The second century geographer [[Ptolemy]] mentions a metropolis "Sageda" or "Sagoda", which has been identified with Saketa.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=18}} The earliest inscription that mentions Saketa as a place name is dated to the late Kushan period: it was found on the pedestal of a Buddha image in Shravasti, and records the gift of the image by Sihadeva of Saketa.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=24}} Before or after the Kushans, Saketa appears to have been ruled by a dynasty of kings whose names end in "-mitra", and whose coins have been found at Ayodhya. They may have been members of a local dynasty that was distinct from the [[Mitra dynasty (Mathura)|Mitra dynasty]] of Mathura. These kings are attested only by their coinage: Sangha-mitra, Vijaya-mitra, Satya-mitra, Deva-mitra, and Arya-mitra; coins of Kumuda-sena and Aja-varman have also been discovered.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=23}}

=== Gupta period ===

Around the fourth century, the region came under the control of the [[Gupta Empire|Guptas]], who revived [[Brahmanism]].{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=26}} The ''[[Vayu Purana]]'' and the ''[[Brahmanda Purana]]'' attest that the early Gupta kings ruled Saketa.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=7}} No Gupta-era archaeological layers have been discovered in present-day Ayodhya, although a large number of Gupta coins have been discovered here. It is possible that during the Gupta period, the habitations in the city were located in the areas that have not yet been excavated.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=27}} The Buddhist sites that had suffered destruction during the Khotanese-Kushan invasion appear to have remained deserted.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|pp=25–26}} The fifth-century Chinese traveller [[Faxian]] states that the ruins of Buddhist buildings existed at "Sha-chi" during his time.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=17}} One theory identifies Sha-chi with Saketa, although this identification is not undisputed.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=J. C. Aggarwal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V3JuAAAAMAAJ |title=Ram Janmabhoomi through the ages: Babri Masjid controversy |last2=N. K. Chowdhry |publisher=S. Chand |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-8364-2745-5 |page=7 |access-date=13 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907214041/https://books.google.com/books?id=V3JuAAAAMAAJ |archive-date=7 September 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> If Sha-chi is indeed Saketa, it appears that by the fifth century, the town no longer had a flourshing Buddhist community or any important Buddhist building that was still in use.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=18}}

An important development during the Gupta time was the recognition of Saketa as the [[Ayodhya (legendary city)|legendary city of Ayodhya]], the capital of the [[Ikshvaku dynasty]].{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=26}} The 436 AD Karamdanda (Karmdand) inscription, issued during the reign of [[Kumaragupta I]], names Ayodhya as the capital of the Kosala province, and records commander Prithvisena's offerings to Brahmins from Ayodhya.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=28}} Later, the capital of the [[Gupta Empire]] was moved from Pataliputra to Ayodhya. [[Paramartha]] states that king Vikramaditya moved the royal court to Ayodhya; Xuanzang also corroborates this, stating that this king moved the court to the "country of Shravasti", that is, Kosala.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=29}} A local oral tradition of Ayodhya, first recorded in writing by [[Robert Montgomery Martin]] in 1838,{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=30}} mentions that the city was deserted after the death of Rama's descendant [[Brihadbala]]. The city remain deserted until King Vikrama of [[Ujjain]] came searching for it, and re-established it. He cut down the forests that had covered the ancient ruins, erected the Ramgar fort, and built 360 temples.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=30}}

Vikramditya was a title of multiple Gupta kings, and the king who moved the capital to Ayodhya is identified as Skandagupta.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=29}} Bakker theorises that the move to Ayodhya may have been prompted by a flooding of the river Ganges at Pataliputra, the need to check the [[Huna people|Huna]] advance from the west, and Skandagupta's desire to compare himself with Rama (whose Ikshvaku dynasty is associated with the legendary Ayodhya).{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=30}} According to Paramaratha's ''Life of Vasubandhu'', Vikramaditya was a patron of scholars, and awarded 300,000 pieces of gold to [[Vasubandhu]].{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=31}} The text states that Vasubandhu was a native of Saketa ("Sha-ki-ta"), and describes Vikramaditya as the king of Ayodhya ("A-yu-ja").{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=8}} This wealth was used to build three monasteries in the country of A-yu-ja (Ayodhya).{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=31}} Paramartha further states that the later king Baladitya (identified with [[Narasimhagupta]]) and his mother also awarded large sums of gold to Vasubandhu, and these funds were used to build another Buddhist temple at Ayodhya.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=32}} These structures may have been seen by the seventh century Chinese traveller [[Xuanzang]], who describes a [[stupa]] and a [[monastery]] at Ayodhya ("O-yu-t-o").{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=18, 31}}

=== Decline as a political centre ===
Ayodhya probably suffered when the Hunas led by [[Mihirakula]] invaded the Gupta empire in the sixth century. After the fall of the Guptas, it may have been ruled by the [[Maukhari]] dynasty, whose coins have been found in the nearby areas. It was not devastated, as Xuanzang describes it as a flourishing town and a Buddhist centre.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|pp=32–33}} However, it had lost its position as an important political centre to [[Kanyakubja]] (Kannauj).{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|pp=33–34}} At the time of Xuanzang's visit, it was a part of [[Harsha]]'s empire, and was probably the seat of a vassal or an administrative officer. Xuanzang states that the city measured about 0.6&nbsp;km (20 [[li (unit)|li]]) in circumference. Another seventh-century source, ''[[Kāśikāvṛttī]]'', mentions that the town was surrounded by a moat similar to that around [[Pataliputra]].{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=33}}

After the fall of Harsha's empire, Ayodhya appears to have been variously controlled by local kings and the rulers of Kannauj, including [[Yashovarman]] and the [[Gurjara-Pratihara]]s. The town is not mentioned in any surviving texts or inscriptions composed during 650–1050 AD, although it may be identified with the "city of [[Harishchandra]]" mentioned in the eighth-century poem ''[[Gaudavaho]]''. Archaeological evidence (including images to [[Vishnu]], Jain [[tirthankara]]s, [[Ganesha]], the seven [[Matrikas]], and a Buddhist stupa) suggests that the religious activity in the area continued during this period.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984|p=34}}

=== Early medieval period ===
According to Indologist [[Hans T. Bakker]], the only religious significance of Ayodhya in the first millennium AD was related to the ''Gopratara'' [[tirtha (Hinduism)|tirtha]] (now called Guptar Ghat), where Rama and his followers are said to have ascended to heaven by entering the waters of Sarayu.{{sfn|Bakker, The rise of Ayodhya as a place of pilgrimage|1982|p=105}}<ref name="paramasivan-2009" />{{sfn|Kunal, Ayodhya Revisited|2016|p=12}}

In the 11th century, the [[Gahadavala]] dynasty came to power in the region, and promoted [[Vaishnavism]]. They built several [[Vishnu]] temples in Ayodhya, five of which survived till the end of [[Aurangzeb]]'s reign. Hans Bakker concludes that there might have been a temple at the supposed birth spot of Rama built by the Gahadavalas (see [[Vishnu Hari inscription]]). In subsequent years, the cult of Rama developed within Vaishnavism, with Rama being regarded as the foremost avatar of Vishnu. Between the 13th and 18th century, Ayodhya's importance as a pilgrimage centre grew.<ref name="paramasivan-2009">{{Cite book |last=Paramasivan |first=Vasudha |title=Patronage and Popularisation, Pilgrimage and Procession |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=2009 |isbn=978-3-447-05723-3 |editor-last=Heidi R. M. Pauwels |pages=101–116 |chapter=Yah Ayodhya Vah Ayodhya: Earthly and Cosmic Journeys in the Anand-lahari}}</ref>

In 1226 AD, Ayodhya became the capital of the province of [[Awadh]] (or "Oudh") within the [[Delhi sultanate]]. Muslim historians state that the area was little more than wilderness prior to this. Pilgrimage was tolerated, but the tax on pilgrims ensured that the temples did not receive much income.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya: A Hindu Jerusalem|1991}}

=== Mughal period ===
[[File:Ayodhya seen from the river Ghaghara, Uttar Pradesh. Coloure Wellcome V0050436.jpg|thumb|right|Ayodhya in 1785 as seen from river [[Ghaghara]]; painting by [[William Hodges]]. It depicts the Svargadvar Ghat. A mosque of Aurangzeb period in the background.<ref>{{harvnb|Kunal, Ayodhya Revisited|2016|pp=439–440}}: "It is remarkable to note that William Hodges, R.A., who visited Fyzabad and Ayodhya in 1783, made the well known painting of the bank with Svargadvāri mosque."</ref>]]

Under [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] rule, the [[Babri mosque]] was constructed in Ayodhya. The city was the capital of the province of [[Awadh]] (mispronounced as "Oudh" by the British), which is also believed to be a variant of the name "Ayodhya".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Service |first=Tribune News |title=Awadh Archives in Ayodhya |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/features/awadh-archives-in-ayodhya-140592 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831075415/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/features/awadh-archives-in-ayodhya-140592 |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=31 August 2021 |website=Tribuneindia News Service |language=en}}</ref>

After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 AD, the central Muslim rule weakened, and Awadh became virtually independent, with Ayodhya as its capital. However, the rulers became increasingly dependent on the local Hindu nobles, and control over the temples and pilgrimage centres was relaxed.{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya: A Hindu Jerusalem|1991}}{{better source needed|date=August 2020}}

[[File:United Provinces 1903.gif|thumb|right|[[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh]], showing 'Ajodhia', 1903 map]]

=== British period ===
In the 1850s, a group of Hindus attacked the Babri mosque, on the grounds that it was built over [[Ram Janmabhoomi|the birthplace]] of the Hindu deity [[Rama]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Christophe Jaffrelot |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iVsfVOTUnYEC&pg=PA92 |title=The Hindu Nationalist Movement and Indian Politics: 1925 to the 1990s: Strategies of Identity-building, Implantation and Mobilisation (with Special Reference to Central India) |publisher=Penguin Books India |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-14-024602-5 |page=92 |access-date=20 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907214041/https://books.google.com/books?id=iVsfVOTUnYEC&pg=PA92 |archive-date=7 September 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> To prevent further disputes, the British administrators divided the mosque premises between Hindus and Muslims.<ref>P. Carnegy: ''A Historical Sketch of Tehsil Fyzabad'', Lucknow 1870, cited by Harsh Narain, ''The Ayodhya Temple Mosque Dispute: Focus on Muslim Sources'', 1993, New Delhi, Penman Publications. {{ISBN|81-85504-16-4}} p.8-9, and by Peter Van der Veer ''Religious Nationalism'', p.153</ref>

Ayodhya was annexed in 1856 by the British rulers. The rulers of Awadh were [[Shia]], and the [[Sunni]] groups had already protested against the permissive attitude of the former government. The British intervened and crushed the Sunni resistance. In 1857, the British annexed Oudh (Awadh) and subsequently reorganised it into the [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh]].{{sfn|Bakker, Ayodhya: A Hindu Jerusalem|1991}}

{{clear left}}

=== Independent India ===
{{Ayodhya debate}}

{{See also|Ayodhya dispute}}

A movement was launched in 1984 by the [[Vishva Hindu Parishad]] party to reclaim the Babri mosque site for a Rama temple. In 1992, a right wing [[Hindu nationalist]] rally turned into a riot, leading to the [[demolition of the Babri Masjid|demolition of the Babri mosque]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Amy Chua |url=https://archive.org/details/dayofempirehowhy00chua_0 |title=Day of Empire: How Hyperpowers Rise to Global Dominance – And Why They Fall |publisher=Doubleday |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-385-51284-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dayofempirehowhy00chua_0/page/182 182] |url-access=registration}}</ref> A makeshift temple at [[Ram Janmabhoomi]] for ''[[Ram Lalla Temple|Ram Lalla]]'', infant Rama was constructed.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 January 2002 |title=Ram Lalla deity to be taken to Ayodhya |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/2002/01/19/stories/2002011901441000.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=30 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040623012141/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/2002/01/19/stories/2002011901441000.htm |archive-date=23 June 2004}}</ref> Under the Indian government orders, no one was permitted near the site within 200 yards, and the gate was locked to the outside. Hindu pilgrims, however, began entering through a side door to offer worship.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

In 2003, the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] (ASI) carried out an excavation at the mosque site to determine if it was built over the ruins of a temple. The excavation uncovered pillar bases indicating a temple had been in existence under the mosque.<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 August 2003 |title=Proof of temple found at Ayodhya: ASI report |work=[[Rediff.com]] |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/aug/25ayo1.htm |url-status=live |access-date=30 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100926043755/http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/aug/25ayo1.htm |archive-date=26 September 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=25 August 2003 |title=Evidence of temple found: ASI |work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)]] |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20030826/main6.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030906030401/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20030826/main6.htm |archive-date=6 September 2003}}</ref> Besides Hindus, the Buddhist and Jain representatives claimed that their temples existed at the excavated site.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Chishti |first=Seema |date=14 March 2003 |title=Can Ayodhya dig settle the dispute? |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2848393.stm |url-status=live |access-date=11 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325192812/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2848393.stm |archive-date=25 March 2014}}</ref>

On 5 July 2005, [[2005 Ram Janmabhoomi attack|five terrorists]] attacked the site of the makeshift Ramlalla temple in Ayodhya. All five were killed in the ensuing gunfight with security forces, and one civilian died in the bomb blast triggered as they attempted to breach the cordon wall.

On 30 September 2010, the [[Lucknow]] bench of the [[Allahabad High Court]] ruled that one-third of the disputed land should be given to the [[Uttar Pradesh Sunni Central Waqf Board]], one-third to the [[Nirmohi Akhara]] and one-third to the [[Hindu]] party for the shrine of "Ram Lalla" (infant Rama). The court further ruled that the area where the idols of Ram are present be given to Hindus in the final decree, while the rest of the land shall be divided equally by metes and bounds among the three parties.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Ayodhya verdict: Allahabad High Court says divide land in 3 ways |work=[[NDTV]] |url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/ayodhya-verdict-allahabad-high-court-says-divide-land-in-3-ways-56063 |url-status=live |access-date=30 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101002110425/http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/ayodhya-verdict-allahabad-high-court-says-divide-land-in-3-ways-56063 |archive-date=2 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=High Court of Allahabad, Ram Janmbhoomi Babri Masjid Judgement, Decision of Hon'ble Special Full Bench Hearing Ayodhya Matters |url=http://rjbm.nic.in/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101002000743/http://rjbm.nic.in/ |archive-date=2 October 2010 |access-date=30 September 2010 |publisher=Rjbm.nic.in}}</ref> The judgement, along with evidences provided by the Archaeological Survey of India, upheld that the Babri Masjid was built after demolishing the Hindu temple, which is the birthplace of Rama, and that the mosque was not constructed according to the principles of Islam. The final verdict by the Supreme Court on the case ruled the disputed land in the favour of Hindus for the construction of Ram Mandir and ordered an alternative piece of land be given to the Muslim community for the construction of a mosque.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gupta |first=Pathikrit Sen |date=10 November 2019 |title=Ayodhya Verdict: Entire Disputed Site Goes to Hindus for Ram Mandir, Muslims to Get 5 Acres of Alternate Land |work=[[News18]] |url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/ayodhya-case-verdict-live-updates-ram-janmabhoomi-babri-masjid-ayodhya-mandir-news-samachar-supreme-court-uttar-pradesh-2379563.html |url-status=live |access-date=9 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109055244/https://www.news18.com/news/india/ayodhya-case-verdict-live-updates-ram-janmabhoomi-babri-masjid-ayodhya-mandir-news-samachar-supreme-court-uttar-pradesh-2379563.html |archive-date=9 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=10 November 2019 |title=Ayodhya Verdict Live Updates: Disputed Land To Be Given For Temple Construction, Muslims To Get 5-Acre Plot In Ayodhya, Says Top Court |work=[[NDTV]] |editor-last=Nair |editor-first=Arun |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/ayodhya-verdict-live-updates-ram-mandir-babri-masjid-land-dispute-case-supreme-court-verdict-at-10-3-2129704 |url-status=live |access-date=9 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109060357/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/ayodhya-verdict-live-updates-ram-mandir-babri-masjid-land-dispute-case-supreme-court-verdict-at-10-3-2129704 |archive-date=9 November 2019 |editor2-first=Vaibhav |editor2-last=Tiwari}}</ref>

In a judgement pronounced by a 5 judge bench of the Supreme Court of India on 9 November 2019, the land was handed over to the government to form a trust for the construction of a temple. The court instructed the government to also allot a plot of {{convert|5|acres|ha|order=flip}} in Ayodhya to the Uttar Pradesh Sunni Central Waqf Board to construct a mosque/Masjid.<ref>{{Cite news |date=10 November 2019 |title=Ayodhya verdict live: Country's unity strengthened after verdict, say religious leaders |work=[[The Times of India]] |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/ayodhya-verdict-live-updates-supreme-court-verdict-on-ram-mandir-babri-masjid-dispute/liveblog/71978224.cms |url-status=live |access-date=9 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191110001744/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/ayodhya-verdict-live-updates-supreme-court-verdict-on-ram-mandir-babri-masjid-dispute/liveblog/71978224.cms |archive-date=10 November 2019}}</ref>

Some South Koreans have identified the "Ayuta" mentioned in their ancient [[Samgungnyusa]] legend with Ayodhya. According to this legend, the ancient Korean princess [[Heo Hwang-ok]] came from Ayuta. In the 2000s, the local government of Ayodhya and South Korea acknowledged the connection and held a ceremony to raise a statue of the princess.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Manjul |first=Tarannum |date=21 January 2010 |title=Korean relative of Kings of Ayodhya goes on evidence hunting |work=[[The Indian Express]] |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/korean-relative-of-kings-of-ayodhya-goes-on/569976/ |url-status=live |access-date=12 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110305120500/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/korean-relative-of-kings-of-ayodhya-goes-on/569976/ |archive-date=5 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Arora |first=V N |date=12 September 2004 |title=South Korea's Ayodhya connection |work=[[The Times of India]] |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2004-09-12/india/27159136_1_saryu-monument-connection |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811122813/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2004-09-12/india/27159136_1_saryu-monument-connection |archive-date=11 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Ahn |first=San Whan |date=12 May 2000 |title=Festivities organized to honor Indian princess |work=[[India Abroad]] |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-79276360.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105030814/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-79276360.html |archive-date=5 November 2012 |via=[[HighBeam Research]]}}</ref>

==== Ram temple ====
{{Main|Ram Mandir}}
On 5 August 2020, the prime minister of India, [[Narendra Modi]], laid the ceremonial foundation stone for a new temple at [[Ram Janmabhoomi|what is believed to be the birthplace of the god, Ram]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mishra |first=Avaneesh |date=5 August 2020 |title=Ram temple bhoomi pujan: Ceremony starts at 12.30 pm, PM to offer prayers to idol, address gathering |language=en |work=[[The Indian Express]] |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/ram-temple-bhoomi-pujan-ceremony-starts-at-12-30-pm-pm-to-offer-prayers-to-idol-address-gathering-6539814/ |url-status=live |access-date=31 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831075417/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/ram-temple-bhoomi-pujan-ceremony-starts-at-12-30-pm-pm-to-offer-prayers-to-idol-address-gathering-6539814/ |archive-date=31 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=5 August 2020 |title=Golden chapter, says PM Modi after laying foundation stone for Ram temple |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |editor-last=Tikku |editor-first=Aloke |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/pm-modi-lays-foundation-stone-for-ram-temple-in-ayodhya/story-6PtybMaVg4pvL92ufuBBbO.html |url-status=live |access-date=27 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127132120/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/pm-modi-lays-foundation-stone-for-ram-temple-in-ayodhya/story-6PtybMaVg4pvL92ufuBBbO.html |archive-date=27 November 2021}}</ref> It was planned to build a new township, Navya Ayodhya, on a {{convert|500|acre|ha|adj=on|order=flip}} site next to the [[Faizabad]]-[[Gorakhpur]] highway, which will have luxury hotels and apartment complexes.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sinha |first=Rakesh |date=5 August 2020 |title=Ayodhya breaks ground today |work=[[The Indian Express]] |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/ayodhya-ram-temple-bhoomi-pujan-6539817/ |url-status=live |access-date=27 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127132120/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/ayodhya-ram-temple-bhoomi-pujan-6539817/ |archive-date=27 November 2021}}</ref>

The Ram Mandir ({{literal translation|Rama Temple}}) is a [[Hindu temple]] complex in Ayodhya, [[Uttar Pradesh]], India.<ref name="the new york times-2024">{{Cite web |date=22 January 2024 |title=Why India's New Ram Temple Is So Important |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/22/world/asia/india-ram-temple-ayodhya.html |access-date=29 February 2024 |website=The New York Times |language=en-US |archive-date=6 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240206160611/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/22/world/asia/india-ram-temple-ayodhya.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="bbc news-2024">{{Cite web |date=22 January 2024 |title=Ayodhya Ram Mandir: India PM Modi inaugurates Hindu temple on razed Babri mosque site |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-68003095 |access-date=29 February 2024 |publisher=BBC News |language=en-UK |archive-date=22 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240122144228/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-68003095 |url-status=live }}</ref> Many [[Hindus]] believe that it is located at the site of [[Ram Janmabhoomi]], the mythical birthplace of [[Rama]], a principal [[Hindu deities|deity]] of [[Hinduism]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 October 2019 |title=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-50065277.amp |access-date=8 September 2023 |archive-date=7 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907194334/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-50065277.amp |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bajpai |first=Namita |date=7 May 2020 |title=Land levelling for Ayodhya Ram temple soon, says mandir trust after video conference |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2020/may/07/land-levelling-for-ayodhya-ram-temple-soon-says-mandir-trust-after-video-conference-2140354.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308122919/https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2020/may/07/land-levelling-for-ayodhya-ram-temple-soon-says-mandir-trust-after-video-conference-2140354.html |archive-date=8 March 2021 |access-date=8 May 2020 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref><ref name="reuters-2024">{{Cite web |date=22 January 2024 |title=India's Modi leads consecration of Ram temple in Ayodhya|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/india/india-counts-down-opening-grand-ram-temple-ayodhya-2024-01-22 |access-date=1 March 2024 |website=Reuters |language=en-US|quote="Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi led the consecration on Monday of a grand temple to the Hindu god Lord Ram on a site believed to be his birthplace"}}</ref> The temple was inaugurated<ref name="bbc news-2024" /> on 22 January 2024 after a [[Ram Mandir Prana Pratishtha|prana pratishtha]] (consecration) ceremony.<ref name="the new york times-2024" /><ref name="reuters-2024" />