Editing Bengali language movement (section)

==Early stages of the movement==
[[Image:Partition of India.PNG|thumb|Britain's holdings on the [[Indian subcontinent]] were granted independence in 1947 and 1948, becoming four new independent states: the [[Dominion of India]], the [[Post-independence Burma, 1948–1962|Union of Burma]] (now Myanmar), [[Dominion of Ceylon]] (now [[Sri Lanka]]), and the [[Dominion of Pakistan]] (including [[East Bengal]], from 1956 [[East Pakistan]], 1971-today [[Bangladesh]]).]]

After the partition of India in 1947, Bengali-speaking people in [[East Bengal]], the non-contiguous eastern part of the [[Dominion of Pakistan]], made up 44 million of the newly formed Dominion of Pakistan's 69 million people.<ref name="Banglapedia">{{cite book |last=Al Helal |first=Bashir |year=2012 |chapter=Language Movement |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Language_Movement |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307033428/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Language_Movement |archive-date=7 March 2016}}</ref> The Dominion of Pakistan's government, civil services, and military, however, were dominated by personnel from the western wing of the Dominion of Pakistan.<ref name="JSToldenburg">{{cite journal
 | last = Oldenburg | first = Philip |date=August 1985
 | title = 'A Place Insufficiently Imagined': Language, Belief, and the Pakistan Crisis of 1971
 | journal = The Journal of Asian Studies |publisher = [[Association for Asian Studies]] | volume = 44 | issue = 4 | pages = 711–733 | issn = 0021-9118 | doi = 10.2307/2056443
 | jstor=2056443| s2cid = 145152852 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In November 1947, a key resolution at a national education summit in [[Karachi]] advocated Urdu and English as the sole state languages.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Jabeen | first1 = Mussarat | last2 = Chandio | first2 = Amir Ali | last3 = Qasim | first3 = Zarina | journal = South Asian Studies: A Research Journal of South Asian Studies | title = Language Controversy: Impacts on National Politics and Secession of East Pakistan | year = 2010 | volume = 25 | issue = 1 | pages = 99–124}}</ref> Opposition and protests arose immediately. Students from Dhaka rallied under the leadership of [[Principal Abul Kashem|Abul Kashem]], the secretary of [[Tamaddun Majlish]], a Bengali Islamic cultural organisation. The meeting stipulated Bengali as an official language of the Dominion of Pakistan and as a medium of education in East Bengal.<ref name="umarharv1">{{Harvnb|Umar|1979|p=35}}</ref> However, the [[Pakistan Public Service Commission]] removed Bengali from the list of approved subjects, as well as from currency notes and stamps. The central education minister [[Fazlur Rahman (politician)|Fazlur Rahman]] made extensive preparations to make Urdu the only state language of the Dominion of Pakistan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Al Helal|2003|pp=227–28}}</ref> Public outrage spread, and many Bengali students met on the University of Dhaka campus on 8 December 1947 to formally demand that Bengali be made an official language. To promote their cause, Bengali students organised processions and rallies in Dhaka.<ref name="Banglapedia" />

Leading Bengali scholars argued why Urdu should not be the only state language. The writer [[Abul Mansur Ahmed]] said if Urdu became the state language, the educated society of East Bengal would become 'illiterate' and 'ineligible' for government positions.<ref name="umarharvmansur">{{Harvnb|Umar|1979|pp=30–32}}</ref> The first [[Rastrabhasa Sangram Parishad]] (National Language Action Committee), an organisation in favour of Bengali as a state language was formed towards the end of December 1947. Professor [[Nurul Huq Bhuiyan]] of the Tamaddun Majlish convened the committee.<ref name="Banglapedia" /><ref name="Sri">{{cite book |title=Ekusher Shongkolon '80 |year=1980 |publisher=[[Bangla Academy (Bangladesh)|Bangla Academy]] |location=[[Dhaka]] |language=bn |pages=102–103}}</ref> Later, Parliament member [[Shamsul Huq]] convened a new committee to push for Bengali as a state language.

===Dhirendranath Datta's proposal===
[[File:Dhirendranath datta.jpg|thumb|Dhirendranath was the key figure to raise the demand for [[Bangali]] with its [[Bengali script|traditional script]] as a state language in Pakistan assembly.]]
Assembly member [[Dhirendranath Datta]] proposed legislation in the [[Constituent Assembly of Pakistan]] to allow members to speak in Bengali and authorise its use for official purposes.<ref name="Banglapedia" /> Datta's proposal was supported by legislators Prem Hari Burman, [[Bhupendra Kumar Datta]] and Sris Chandra Chattaopadhyaya of East Bengal, as well as the people from the region.<ref name="Banglapedia" /> Prime minister [[Liaquat Ali Khan]] and the Muslim League denounced the proposal as an attempt to divide the Pakistani people, thus the legislation was defeated.<ref name="Banglapedia" /><ref name="swadhinotajuddho">{{cite book |last=Rahman |first=Hasan Hafizur |title=Bangladesher Swadhinota juddher Dolilpotro |year=1982 |publisher=[[Ministry of Information, People's Republic of Bangladesh]] |oclc=416657937}}</ref>

===Fazlur Rahman's proposal ===
Since the partition of the country in 1947, the Union Minister representing East Pakistan [[Fazlur Rahman (politician)|Fazlur Rahman]] campaigned for the implementation of Bengali language written in Arabic script (Bengali language with the "Hurful Qur'an"). At the Nikhil Pakistan Teachers' Conference held in Karachi on 29 December 1948, Fazlur Rahman proposed to write Bengali in Arabic script for the sake of Islamization of the language. East Bengal Provincial Education Department Secretary Fazle Ahmad Karim Fazli was one of the main initiators of the effort to introduce the Arabic alphabet in Bengal. Both Karim Fazli and Fazlur Rahman established a society called 'Hurful Qur'an Samity' with a Maulana named Zulfikar Ali of Chittagong and tried to form a movement to introduce Arabic letters in Bengal through him. Abdul Hakim, the former director of the East-Bengal Education Department said;  "Some funny legends are heard in Dhaka about a Bengali Wazir Sahib's own knowledge of Urdu. He wanted to fulfill his ardent desire to beautify the in order to be admired by the all-powerful Urdu Mahal of the Centre. For this purpose, a sum of Rs. 35,000 per annum for the publication of books was arranged to hand over the central sanction to the aforesaid Provincial Education Secretary."<ref>{{cite web |script-title=bn:আরবি অক্ষরে বাংলা শিক্ষাদানের ষড়যন্ত্র - (স্বাধীনতা আন্দোলনের গােড়াপত্তন) |url=https://songramernotebook.com/archives/66029 |website=Songramer Notebook |access-date=7 December 2022 |date=21 July 2019 |title=Site is undergoing maintenance }}</ref> In response, [[Muhammad Shahidullah]] opposed the proposal, fearing further complications, and advocated making Bengali unchanged as the state language of East Bengal and one of the state languages of Pakistan.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Umar |first1=Badruddin |script-title=bn:পূর্ব বাংলার ভাষা আন্দোলন ও তৎকালীন রাজনীতি (East Bengal's language movement and contemporary politics) |date=1970 |publisher=[[Anandhara Prakashan]] |url=https://doc.liberationwarbangladesh.net/books/fnes/#p=204 |pages = 185–187 |access-date=5 May 2022|language=bn }}</ref>

===Proposal for Romanisation of Bengali===
[[File:Qudrat Khuda.jpg|thumb|right|[[Muhammad Qudrat-i-Khuda]] proposed the romanisation of Bengali in the early stage of language movement.]]
During that time, [[romanisation of Bengali]] was also proposed along with other proposals regarding the determination of the state language of Pakistan.<ref name="ES"/><ref name=BAH>[[Bashir Al Helal]], [https://doc.liberationwarbangladesh.net/books/yztg/#p=584 History of the Language Movement, forthcoming publication, February 1995, pp. 685-692]</ref>  After 1947, many other East Pakistani academics, including [[Muhammad Qudrat-i-Khuda]] and Nazirul Islam Mohammad Sufian, supported the idea of writing Bengali in Roman script.<ref name=BAH/> In 1948, Mohammad Ferdous Khan opposed it in his pamphlet "The language problem of today".<ref name=BAH/>

Abul Fazl Muhammad Akhtar-ud-Din supported the Roman alphabet in his article entitled "Bangla Bornomalar Poribortton" (বাংলা বর্ণমালার পরিবর্ত্তন, Changes in the Bengali Alphabet) published in [[Daily Azad]] on 18 April 1949.<ref name=BAH/>

The romanisation proposal continued on even after 1952. In 1957, the East Pakistan Education Commission recommended the use of the revised Roman script in adult education.<ref name=BAH/>

Around 1957–1958, there was a significant demand for the use of Roman letters again.  At that time [[Muhammad Abdul Hye|Muhammad Abdul Hai]] and [[Muhammad Enamul Haque]] opposed it.<ref name=BAH/>

===Agitations of 1948===
Students of the [[University of Dhaka]] and other colleges of the city organised a general strike on 11 March 1948 to protest the omission of Bengali language from official use, including coins, stamps and recruitment tests for the navy. The movement restated the demand that Bengali be declared an official language of the Dominion of Pakistan. Political leaders such as Shamsul Huq, [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]], [[Shawkat Ali]], [[M Sirajul Islam]], [[Kazi Golam Mahboob]], [[Oli Ahad]], Abdul Wahed and others were arrested during the rallies.

===Agreement with Khawaja Nazimuddin===
In the afternoon of 11 March, a meeting was held to protest police brutality and arrests. A group of students marching towards the chief minister [[Khawaja Nazimuddin]]'s house was stopped in front of the [[Dhaka High Court]]. The rally changed its direction and moved in the direction of the Secretariat building. Police attacked the procession injuring several students and leaders, including [[A. K. Fazlul Huq]].<ref name="helal263">{{Harvnb|Al Helal|2003|pp=263–265}}</ref> Continuing strikes were observed the following four days. Under such circumstances, the chief minister Nazimuddin signed an accord with the student leaders agreeing to some terms and conditions, without complying to the demand that Bengali be made a state language.<ref name="Banglapedia" /> On 6 April 1948, in East Bengal Assembly resolution was passed making Bengali an official language of the province by Nazimuddin led Muslim League government of East Bengal.

===Liaquat Ali Khan's visit to Dhaka===
On November 18, 1948, the first Prime Minister of Pakistan [[Liaquat Ali Khan]] visited East Pakistan. On November 27, he addressed a student meeting at the playground of Dhaka University. In that meeting, the demand for Bengali language in the certificate issued by the Dhaka University Central Student Union was again raised, but he refrained from making any comments. In a meeting of the National Language Working Council held under the chairmanship of Ataur Rahman Khan on November 17, [[Aziz Ahmad (novelist)|Aziz Ahmad]], [[Abul Kashem]], [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]], [[Kamruddin Ahmed]], [[Abdul Mannan (politician, born 1929)|Abdul Mannan]], [[Tajuddin Ahmed]] and others drafted a memorandum and sent it to Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan. The Prime Minister did not respond to this either.<ref name=VAAncholicItihash-P5-P27>{{cite book |script-title=bn:ভাষা আন্দোলনের আঞ্চলিক ইতিহাস (Bhasha Andolaner Ancholik Itihash, Regional history of language movement) |last1=Malek |first1=Abdul |editor-first1=Abu Muhammad Delwar |editor-last1=Hossain |year=2000 |publisher=Selina Hossain, Director, Research Compendium Department of Folklore, [[Bangla Academy (Bangladesh)|Bangla Academy]] |location=Dhaka |isbn=984-07-4045-8 |pages=5–27 }}</ref><ref name=Islam>{{cite book |last1=Islam |first1=Rafiqul |title=Amar Ekushey O Shohid Minar (আমার একুশে ও শহীদ মিনার, My Ekhushey (21st) and Martyr's Monument)  |year=2000 |publisher=Poroma |location=Dhaka |language=bn |isbn=984-8245-39-1 |pages=62–85 }}</ref>

===Muhammad Ali Jinnah's visit to Dhaka===
[[Image:Quaid-delivering-speech copy2.jpg|thumb|left|[[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] on 21 March 1948 told at a public meeting that ''State language of Pakistan is going to be Urdu and no other language.''<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://jinnah.pk/2009/09/27/national-consolidation/ |title=NATIONAL CONSOLIDATION |access-date=21 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521104719/http://jinnah.pk/2009/09/27/national-consolidation/ |archive-date=21 May 2014 }}</ref>]]
In the height of civic unrest, [[Governor-General of Pakistan]] [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] arrived in Dhaka on 19 March 1948. On 21 March, at a civic reception at [[Suhrawardy Udyan|Racecourse Ground]], he claimed that the language issue was designed by a "[[fifth column]]" to divide Pakistani Muslims.<ref>{{Harvnb|Umar|2004|p=34}}</ref><ref name="SA9">{{cite web |title=De-Pakistanisation of Bangladesh |url=http://www.saag.org/%5Cpapers22%5Cpaper2199.html |author=R. Upadhyay |publisher=Bangladesh Monitor, South Asia Analysis Group |date=7 April 2007 |access-date=16 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611044641/http://www.saag.org/papers22/paper2199.html |archive-date=11 June 2007}}</ref> Jinnah further declared, in English, that "Urdu, and only Urdu" embodied the spirit of Muslim nations and would remain as the state language,<ref name="Banglapedia" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Uddin|2006|pp=2–4}}</ref><ref name="UStudies">{{cite book |editor1=James Heitzman |editor2=Robert Worden |url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/ |title=Bangladesh: A Country Study |access-date=16 June 2007 |chapter=Pakistan Period (1947–71) |chapter-url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/14.htm |publisher=Government Printing Office, Country Studies US |year=1989 |isbn=0-16-017720-0}}</ref><ref name="sayeed">{{cite journal |last=Sayeed |first=Khalid Bin |title=Federalism and Pakistan |journal=Far Eastern Survey |publisher=Institute of Pacific Relations |volume=23 |issue=9 |pages=139–143 |issn=0362-8949 |date=September 1954 |doi=10.2307/3023818 |jstor=3023818}}</ref> labelling those who disagreed with his views as "Enemies of Pakistan". Jinnah delivered a similar speech at [[Curzon Hall]] of the University of Dhaka on 24 March <ref name="JSToldenburg" /> where Language activist [[Abdul Matin (language activist)|Abdul Matin]] stood up at the chair and shouted, ''No. It can not be''. Other students also supported him during that time.<ref>{{cite book |title=Ekusher Smriticharon '80|year=1980 |publisher=[[Bangla Academy (Bangladesh)|Bangla Academy]] |location=Dhaka |language=Bengali| page=113}}</ref><ref name="Banglabazar Patrika, Magh 30, 1399">''Banglabazar Patrika'', Magh 30, 1399 {February 12, 1993]</ref> Thus at both meetings, Jinnah was interrupted by large segments of the audience. He later called a meeting of a state language committee of action and overruled the contract that was signed by Khawaja Nazimuddin with the student leaders.<ref name="helal263" /> Before Jinnah left Dhaka on 28 March, he delivered a speech on radio reasserting his "Urdu-only" policy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Umar|2004|p=35}}</ref>

=== Proposal for Arabic language ===
[[Image:Mohammod Sohidullah.jpg|thumb|Muhammad Shahidullah was a central figure in the proposal to make Arabic the state language.]]
[[Muhammad Shahidullah]] believed that Bengalis could learn Urdu at the same time as learning English, he also believed that: "When Arabic becomes the state language of Pakistan, the creation of the state of Pakistan will be justified."<ref>{{cite book |last1=  Hashmi |first1=Taj |title=Fifty Years of Bangladesh, 1971–2021: Crises of Culture, Development, Governance, and Identity |date=22 April 2022 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-97158-8 |pages=61, 75  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EWBsEAAAQBAJ&dq=bengali+written+in+arabic+script&pg=PA61 |language=en|quote=While Fazlur Rahman (1905-1966), a Central Minister from East Bengal, proposed that Bengali be written in Arabic script for the sake of Islamization of the language, Dr Muhammad Shahidullah (1884-  1969), renowned Bengali scholar and a linguist, believed that Bengalis could learn Urdu as they learned English, but he also believed that: "The day Arabic becomes the state language of Pakistan, the creation of the state of Pakistan becomes justified."  84. (Badruddin Umar, Purbo Banglar Bhasha Andolon o Tatkalin Rajniti (Language Movement & Contemporary Politics in East Bengal), Vol 1, Maula Brothers, Dhaka 1970, pp. 180, 256-9, 272.)}}</ref>  Therefore, in December 1949, he assumed the presidency of the East Pakistan Arabic Language Association, approved a draft memorandum to be submitted to the Assembly, where it was requested to government for Arabic to be made the state language of Pakistan and for the provision of 'Darse Koran' or Quran teaching in various centers and mosques of the city.<ref name=pb>{{cite book |last1=Umar |first1=Badaruddin |title= Purbo Banglar Bhasha Andolan O Totkalin Rajneeti (East Bengal's Language Movement and Contemporary Politics) |date=1970 |url=https://doc.liberationwarbangladesh.net/books/fnes/#p=301|publisher  =Ananddhara Prakashan |pages=3–5, 282–284 |access-date=8 December 2022 |language=bn}}</ref> On January 18, 1950, some students of [[Rajshahi College]] called a meeting to demand that Arabic be made the state language.<ref name=pb/> [[State Bank of Pakistan|3 State Bank]] Governor [[Zahid Husain (banker)|Zahid Hussain]] proposed to make Arabic the state language and this proposal was then supported by Syed Akbar Shah, member of [[Provincial Assembly of Sindh|Sindh Legislative Council]] and Vice-Chancellor of [[University of Sindh|Sindh Arabic University]].<ref name=pb/> On 1 February 1951 at the session of the World Muslim Conference in Karachi, the leader of the Ismaili community [[Aga Khan III|Aga Khan]] said, if Arabic is made the state language of Pakistan, common communication will be established between the Muslims of the Arab world, North Africa and Indonesia.<ref name=pb/> On February 10, 1951, the Secretary of the Pakistan Buddhist League, Rabindranath Burmi, issued a statement opposing these proposals in favour of Urdu instead of Arabic as state language.<ref name=pb/> These proposals to make Arabic the state language did not gain much support in any part of Pakistan.<ref name  =pb/> However, according to Badruddin Umar, as this demand was related to the question of development of Islamic culture, it indirectly supported the demand of the introduction of Arabic script in Bengali language to some extent in some groups.<ref name=pb/>

===Proposal by Language Committee===
[[File:MohammadAkramKhan.jpg|thumb|East Bengal Language Committee headed by [[Muhammad Akram Khan]] recommended writing Bengali through Arabic characters.]]
Shortly thereafter, the East Bengal Language Committee, presided by [[Mohammad Akram Khan|Maulana Akram Khan]], was formed by the East Bengal government to prepare a report on the language problem.<ref name="ciil-ebooks.net">{{cite web |url=http://www.ciil-ebooks.net/html/benling/chapter4.html |title=Chapter 4: Other Activities |last=Mandal |first=Ranita |date=24 June 2002 |work=Muhammad Shahidullah & His Contribution To Bengali Linguistics |publisher=Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysore, India |access-date=23 June 2007}}</ref>

At 1949, Language Committee of the East-Bengal Government conducted a survey among teachers, intellectuals, high civil servants, members of the Legislative Council, according to which, out of 301 respondents, 96 favoured the introduction of the Arabic script, 18 the Roman script and 187 gave opinion in favour of the retention of the Bengali script. Besides, many people did not give any answer.<ref name=BAH/>

The committee produced its report by 6 December 1950; but it was not published before 1958.  Here an effective measure was proposed by the government to solve the language problem, where they recommended writing Bengali through Arabic characters.{{full citation needed|date=January 2023}}<ref>{{full citation needed|date=January 2023}} [[Daily Azad]], 24 May 1950</ref>