Editing Bible (section)

== Development and history ==
{{See also|Biblical manuscript|Textual criticism|Samaritan Pentateuch}}
[[File:Bible from 1300 (20).jpg|thumb|alt=Hebrew Bible from 1300. Genesis.|The [[Book of Genesis]] in a {{circa|1300}} [[Hebrew Bible]]]]
[[File:Great Isaiah Scroll.jpg|thumb|The [[Great Isaiah Scroll]] (1QIsa<sup>a</sup>), one of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], is the oldest complete copy of the [[Book of Isaiah]].]]
The Bible<!-- Per consensus, please do not add the word 'holy'. --> is not a single book; it is a collection of books whose complex development is not completely understood. The oldest books began as songs and stories [[oral tradition|orally transmitted]] from generation to generation. Scholars of the twenty-first century are only in the beginning stages of exploring "the interface between writing, performance, memorization, and the aural dimension" of the texts. Current indications are that writing and orality were not separate as much as ancient writing was learned in communal oral performance.<ref>Carr, David M. The formation of the Hebrew Bible: A new reconstruction. Oxford University Press, 2011. p. 5</ref> [[Authorship of the Bible|The Bible was written and compiled by many people]], who many scholars say are mostly unknown, from a variety of disparate cultures and backgrounds.{{sfnm |1a1=Swenson |1y=2021 |1p=12 |2a1=Rogerson |2y=2005 |2p=21 |3a1=Riches |3y=2000 |3loc=ch. 2}}

British biblical scholar John K. Riches wrote:{{sfn|Riches|2000|p=9}}
{{blockquote|[T]he biblical texts were produced over a period in which the living conditions of the writers – political, cultural, economic, and ecological – varied enormously. There are texts which reflect a nomadic existence, texts from people with an established monarchy and Temple cult, texts from exile, texts born out of fierce oppression by foreign rulers, courtly texts, texts from wandering charismatic preachers, texts from those who give themselves the airs of sophisticated [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] writers. It is a time-span which encompasses the compositions of [[Homer]], [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], [[Thucydides]], [[Sophocles]], [[Caesar]], [[Cicero]], and [[Catullus]]. It is a period which sees the rise and fall of the [[Assyrian empire]] (twelfth to seventh century) and of the [[Persian empire]] (sixth to fourth century), [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]]'s campaigns (336–326), the rise of [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] and its domination of the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] (fourth century to the founding of the [[Principate]], {{BCE|27|link=y}}), the destruction of the [[Second Temple|Jerusalem Temple]] (70 CE), and the extension of Roman rule to parts of [[Scotland]] (84 CE).}}

The books of the Bible were initially written and copied by hand on [[papyrus]] scrolls.{{sfn|Lim|2017|pp=7; 47}} No originals have survived. The age of the original composition of the texts is, therefore, difficult to determine and heavily debated. Using a combined linguistic and historiographical approach, Hendel and Joosten date the oldest parts of the Hebrew Bible (the Song of Deborah in Judges 5 and the Samson story of Judges 16 and 1 Samuel) to having been composed in the premonarchial early [[Iron Age]] ({{circa|1200 BCE}}).{{sfn|Hendel|Joosten|2018|pp=ix, 98–99, 101, 104, 106}} The [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], discovered in the caves of [[Qumran]] in 1947, are copies that can be dated to between 250 BCE and 100 CE. They are the oldest existing copies of the books of the [[Hebrew Bible]] of any length that are not fragments.{{sfnm |Lim|2017|1pp=38, 47 |Ulrich|2013|2pp=103–104 |3a1=VanderKam|3a2=Flint|3y=2013 |3loc=ch. 5 |Brown|2010|4loc=ch. 3(A)|5a1=Harris|5a2=Platzner|5y=2008 |5p=22}}

The earliest manuscripts were probably written in [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|paleo-Hebrew]], a kind of [[cuneiform]] pictograph similar to other pictographs of the same period.{{sfn|Wegner|2006|p=59}} The [[Babylonian captivity|exile to Babylon]] most likely prompted the shift to square script (Aramaic) in the fifth to third centuries BCE.{{sfn|Wegner|2006|p=60}} From the time of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Hebrew Bible was written with spaces between words to aid reading.{{sfn|Wegner|2006|p=61}} By the eighth century CE, the Masoretes added vowel signs.{{sfn|VanderKam|Flint|2013|pp=88–90}} Levites or scribes maintained the texts, and some texts were always treated as more authoritative than others.{{sfn|Wegner|2006|pp=62–63}} Scribes preserved and changed the texts by changing the script, updating archaic forms, and making corrections. These Hebrew texts were copied with great care.{{sfn|Wegner|2006|pp=64–65}}

Considered to be scriptures ([[sacredness|sacred]], authoritative religious texts), the books were compiled by different religious communities into various [[biblical canon]]s (official collections of scriptures).{{sfn|Hayes|2012|p=9}} The earliest compilation, containing the first five books of the Bible and called the [[Torah]] (meaning "law", "instruction", or "teaching") or Pentateuch ("five books"), was accepted as [[Development of the Hebrew Bible canon|Jewish canon]] by the fifth century BCE. A second collection of narrative histories and prophesies, called the [[Nevi'im]] ("prophets"), was canonized in the third century BCE. A third collection called the [[Ketuvim]] ("writings"), containing psalms, proverbs, and narrative histories, was canonized sometime between the second century BCE and the second century CE.{{sfn|Hayes|2012|pp=9–10}} These three collections were written mostly in [[Biblical Hebrew]], with some parts in [[Aramaic]], which together form the [[Hebrew Bible]] or "TaNaKh" (an [[Hebrew abbreviations|abbreviation]] of "Torah", "Nevi'im", and "Ketuvim").{{sfn|Lim |2017|p=40}}

=== Hebrew Bible ===
{{main|Hebrew Bible}}
There are three major [[biblical manuscript|historical versions]] of the [[Hebrew Bible]]: the [[Septuagint]], the [[Masoretic Text]], and the [[Samaritan Pentateuch]] (which contains only the first five books). They are related but do not share the same paths of development. The Septuagint, or the LXX, is a translation of the Hebrew scriptures and some related texts into Koine Greek and is believed to have been carried out by approximately seventy or seventy-two scribes and elders who were [[Hellenistic Judaism|Hellenic Jews]],<ref>[https://www.bl.uk/greek-manuscripts/articles/manuscripts-of-the-greek-old-testament%20Greek%20manuscripts The Old Testament in Greek] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230520031054/https://www.bl.uk/greek-manuscripts/articles/manuscripts-of-the-greek-old-testament%20Greek%20manuscripts |date=20 May 2023 }} – Greek manuscripts. British Library. Retrieved 20 May 2023.</ref> begun in [[Alexandria]] in the late third century BCE and completed by 132&nbsp;BCE.{{sfn|Segal|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=owd9zig7i1oC&pg=PA363 363]}}{{sfn|Dorival|Harl|Munnich|1988|p=111}}{{efn|name="ndq"}} Probably commissioned by [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus]], King of Egypt, it addressed the need of the primarily Greek-speaking Jews of the Graeco-Roman diaspora.{{sfn|Segal|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=owd9zig7i1oC&pg=PA363 363]}}{{sfn|Lavidas|2021|p=30}} Existing complete copies of the Septuagint date from the third to the fifth centuries CE, with fragments dating back to the second century BCE.{{Sfnm |1a1=Lim |1y=2017 |1pp=45–46, 58 |2a1=Hayes |2y=2012 |2loc=ch. 1 |3a1=Brown |3y=2010 |3loc=Intro. |4a1=Carr |4y=2010 |4p=250 |5a1=Bandstra |5y=2009 |5pp=8, 480 |6a1=Gravett et al. |6y=2008 |6p=47 |7a1=Harris |7a2=Platzner |7y=2008 |7p=27 |8a1=Riches |8y=2000 |8loc=ch. 3}} Revision of its text began as far back as the first century BCE.<ref name="Dines 2004">{{cite book |last1=Dines |first1=Jennifer |title=The Septuagint |date=2004 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-567-60152-0 |page=4}}</ref> Fragments of the Septuagint were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls; portions of its text are also found on existing papyrus from Egypt dating to the second and first centuries BCE and to the first century CE.<ref name="Dines 2004"/>{{rp|5}}

The [[Masoretes]] began developing what would become the authoritative [[Biblical Hebrew|Hebrew]] and [[Biblical Aramaic|Aramaic]] text of the 24&nbsp;books of the [[Hebrew Bible]] in [[Rabbinic Judaism]] near the end of the Talmudic period ({{circa|300}}–{{circa|500 CE}}), but the actual date is difficult to determine.{{sfn|Hauser|Watson|Kaufman|2003|pp=30–31}}{{sfn|Wegner|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kkVFOTsBOAEC&q=%22Masoretes+inherited%22&pg=PA172 172]}}{{sfn|Swenson|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5xQOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29]}} In the sixth and seventh centuries, three Jewish communities contributed systems for writing the precise letter-text, with its [[niqqud|vocalization]] and [[Hebrew cantillation|accentuation]] known as the ''mas'sora'' (from which we derive the term "masoretic").{{sfn|Hauser|Watson|Kaufman|2003|pp=30–31}} These early Masoretic scholars were based primarily in the Galilean cities of Tiberias and Jerusalem and in Babylonia (modern Iraq). Those living in the Jewish community of Tiberias in ancient Galilee ({{circa|750}}–950) made scribal copies of the Hebrew Bible texts without a standard text, such as the Babylonian tradition had, to work from. The canonical pronunciation of the Hebrew Bible (called Tiberian Hebrew) that they developed, and many of the notes they made, therefore, differed from the Babylonian.{{sfn|Phillips|2016|pp=288–291}} These differences were resolved into a standard text called the Masoretic text in the ninth century.{{sfn|Lavidas|2021|p=75}} The oldest complete copy still in existence is the [[Leningrad Codex]] dating to c. 1000 CE.{{sfn| VanderKam | Flint| 2013| p= 87}}

The Samaritan Pentateuch is a version of the [[Torah]] maintained by the [[Samaritan]] community since antiquity, which European scholars rediscovered in the 17th century; its oldest existing copies date to c. 1100 CE.{{sfnm |Lim|2017|1pp=46–49 |Ulrich|2013|2pp=95–104 |3a1=VanderKam|3a2=Flint|3y=2013|3loc=ch. 5 |Carr|2010|4p=8 |Bandstra|2009|5p=482 |Gravett et al.|2008|6pp=47–49 |7a1=Harris|7a2=Platzner|7y=2008|7pp=23–28}} Samaritans include only the Pentateuch (Torah) in their biblical canon.{{sfn|VanderKam|Flint|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SBMXnB4CRpUC&pg=PA91 91]}} They do not recognize [[Authorship of the Bible#Divine authorship|divine authorship]] or [[Biblical inspiration|inspiration]] in any other book in the Jewish Tanakh.{{efn|Although a paucity of extant source material makes it impossible to be certain that the earliest Samaritans also rejected the other books of the Tanakh, the 3rd-century church father [[Origen]] confirms that the Samaritans in his day "receive[d] the books of Moses alone." {{harvnb|Schaff|1885|loc=[https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf04.vi.ix.i.l.html Chapter XLIX]|ps= (Commentary on John 13:26)}}}} A [[Book of Joshua (Samaritan)|Samaritan Book of Joshua]] partly based upon the Tanakh's [[Book of Joshua]] exists, but Samaritans regard it as a non-canonical secular historical chronicle.{{sfn|Gaster|1908|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eUCRAfZvwRgC&pg=PA166 166]}}

The first [[codex]] form of the Hebrew Bible was produced in the seventh century. The codex is the forerunner of the modern book. Popularized by early Christians, it was made by folding a single sheet of papyrus in half, forming "pages". Assembling multiples of these folded pages together created a "book" that was more easily accessible and more portable than scrolls. In 1488, the first complete printed press version of the Hebrew Bible was produced.{{sfn|Hauser|Watson|Kaufman|2003|pp=31–32}}

=== New Testament ===
[[File:PaulT.jpg|thumb|[[Paul the Apostle]] depicted in ''Saint Paul Writing His [[Epistles]]'', a {{circa|1619}} portrait by [[Valentin de Boulogne]]]]
[[File:P52 verso.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|alt=photo of a fragment of papyrus with writing on it|[[Rylands Library Papyrus P52|The Rylands fragment P52 verso]], 125–175 CE, is the oldest existing fragment of [[New Testament]] papyrus, including phrases from the 18th chapter of the [[Gospel of John]].{{sfn|Orsini|Clarysse|2012|p=470}}]]
During the rise of [[Christianity]] in the first century CE, new scriptures were written in Koine Greek. Christians eventually called these new scriptures the "New Testament" and began referring to the Septuagint as the "Old Testament".{{sfnm |1a1=Lim |1y=2017 |1pp=45–46 |2a1=Brown |2y=2010 |2loc=Intro. and ch. 1 |3a1=Carr |3y=2010 |3p=17 |4a1=Bandstra |4y=2009 |4pp=7, 484 |5a1=Riches |5y=2000 |5loc=chs. 2 and 3}} The New Testament has been preserved in more manuscripts than any other ancient work.{{sfn|Gurry|2016|p=117}}{{sfn|Rezetko|Young|2014|p=164}} Most early Christian copyists were not trained scribes.{{sfn|Wegner|2006|p=300}} Many copies of the gospels and Paul's letters were made by individual Christians over a relatively short period of time, very soon after the originals were written.{{sfn|Wallace|2009|p=88}} There is evidence in the Synoptic Gospels, in the writings of the early [[Church Fathers]], from [[Marcion]], and in the [[Didache]] that Christian documents were in circulation before the end of the first century.{{sfn|Wegner|2006|pp=40–41, 300–301}}{{sfn|Mowry|1944|pp=76, 84, 85}} Paul's letters were circulated during his lifetime, and his death is thought to have occurred before 68 during Nero's reign.{{sfn|Mowry|1944|p=85}}{{sfn|Brown|1997|p=436}} Early Christians transported these writings around the Empire, translating them into [[Syriac versions of the Bible|Old Syriac]], [[Coptic language|Coptic]], [[Ge'ez language|Ethiopic]], and [[Latin]], and other languages.{{sfn|Lavidas|2021|p=29}}

New Testament scholar [[Bart Ehrman]] explains how these multiple texts later became grouped by scholars into categories:<blockquote> During the early centuries of the church, Christian texts were copied in whatever location they were written or taken to. Since texts were copied locally, it is no surprise that different localities developed different kinds of textual tradition. That is to say, the manuscripts in Rome had many of the same errors, because they were for the most part "in-house" documents, copied from one another; they were not influenced much by manuscripts being copied in Palestine; and those in Palestine took on their own characteristics, which were not the same as those found in a place like Alexandria, Egypt. Moreover, in the early centuries of the church, some locales had better scribes than others. Modern scholars have come to recognize that the scribes in Alexandria – which was a major intellectual center in the ancient world – were particularly scrupulous, even in these early centuries, and that there, in Alexandria, a very pure form of the text of the early Christian writings was preserved, decade after decade, by dedicated and relatively skilled Christian scribes.<ref>Ehrman, Bart D. Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why (New York: HarperCollins, 2005) p. 72.</ref></blockquote> These differing histories produced what modern scholars refer to as recognizable "text types". The four most commonly recognized are [[Alexandrian text-type|Alexandrian]], [[Western text-type|Western]], [[Caesarean text-type|Caesarean]], and [[Byzantine text-type|Byzantine]].{{sfnm |Parker|2013|1pp=412–420, 430–432 |Brown|2010|2loc=ch. 3(A)}}

The list of books included in the [[Catholic Bible]] was established as canon by the [[Council of Rome]] in 382, followed by those of [[Council of Hippo|Hippo]] in 393 and [[Council of Carthage#Synod of 397|Carthage]] in 397. Between 385 and 405 CE, the early Christian church translated its canon into [[Vulgar Latin]] (the common Latin spoken by ordinary people), a translation known as the [[Vulgate]].{{sfnm |1a1=Lim |1y=2017 |1p=40 |2a1=Hayes |2y=2012 |2loc=ch. 1 |3a1=Brown |3y=2010 |3loc=Intro. |4a1=Carr |4y=2010 |4pp=3–5 |5a1=Bandstra |5y=2009 |5pp=7–8, 480–481 |6a1=Gravett et al. |6y=2008 |6p=xv |7a1=Harris |7a2=Platzner |7y=2008 |7pp=3–4, 28, 371 |8a1=Riches |8y=2000 |8loc=ch. 3 }} Since then, Catholic Christians have held [[ecumenical council]]s to standardize their biblical canon. The [[Council of Trent]] (1545–63), held by the Catholic Church in response to the [[Protestant Reformation]], authorized the Vulgate as its official Latin translation of the Bible.{{sfnm |1a1=Lim |1y=2017 |1pp=40, 46, 49, 58–59 |2a1=Hayes |2y=2012 |2loc=ch. 1 |3a1=Brown |3y=2010 |3loc=Intro. |4a1=Carr |4y=2010 |4pp=3–5 |5a1=Bandstra |5y=2009 |5pp=7–8, 480–481 |6a1=Gravett et al. |6y=2008 |6pp=xv, 49 |7a1=Harris |7a2=Platzner |7y=2008 |7pp=3–4, 28, 31–32, 371 |8a1=Riches |8y=2000 |8loc=ch. 3}} A number of biblical canons have since evolved. Christian biblical canons range from the 73 books of the [[Catholic Church]] canon and the 66-book canon of most [[Protestantism|Protestant]] denominations to the 81 books of the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]] canon, among others.{{sfn|Riches|2000|pp=7–8}} Judaism has long accepted a single authoritative text, whereas Christianity has never had an official version, instead having many different manuscript traditions.{{sfn|Barton|2019| p=15}}

===Variants===
All biblical texts were treated with reverence and care by those who copied them, yet there are transmission errors, called variants, in all biblical manuscripts.{{sfn|Wegner|2006|p=41}}{{sfn|Black|1994|p=24}} A variant is any deviation between two texts. Textual critic Daniel B. Wallace explains, "Each deviation counts as one variant, regardless of how many MSS [manuscripts] attest to it."{{sfn|Wallace|2009| p=98}} Hebrew scholar [[Emanuel Tov]] says the term is not evaluative; it is a recognition that the paths of development of different texts have separated.{{sfn|Tov|2001|p=18}}

Medieval handwritten manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible were considered extremely precise: the most authoritative documents from which to copy other texts.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Damascus Keters|url=https://web.nli.org.il/sites/nli/english/collections/jewish-collection/pages/damascus.aspx|website=National Library of Israel|access-date=1 July 2020|archive-date=28 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728235241/https://web.nli.org.il/sites/NLI/English/collections/jewish-collection/Pages/damascus.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> Even so,  Hebrew Bible scholar [[David M. Carr|David Carr]] asserts that Hebrew texts still contain some variants.{{sfn|Carr|2011|pp=5–7}} The majority of all variants are accidental, such as spelling errors, but some changes were intentional.{{sfn|Black|1994|p=60}} In the Hebrew text, "memory variants" are generally accidental differences evidenced by such things as the shift in word order found in 1 Chronicles 17:24 and 2 Samuel 10:9 and 13. Variants also include the substitution of lexical equivalents, semantic and grammar differences, and larger scale shifts in order, with some major revisions of the Masoretic texts that must have been intentional.{{sfn|Carr|2011|pp=5–7, 18, 24, 29, 42, 55, 61, 145, 167}}

Intentional changes in New Testament texts were made to improve grammar, eliminate discrepancies, harmonize parallel passages, combine and simplify multiple variant readings into one, and for theological reasons.{{sfn|Black|1994|p=60}}{{sfn|Royce|2013|pp=461–464, 468, 470–473}} Old Testament scholar [[Bruce Waltke|Bruce K. Waltke]] observes that one variant for every ten words was noted in the recent critical edition of the Hebrew Bible, the ''Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia,'' leaving 90% of the Hebrew text without variation. The fourth edition of the United Bible Society's ''Greek New Testament'' notes variants affecting about 500 out of 6900 words, or about 7% of the text.{{sfn|Wegner|2006| p=25}}
{{further|Textual variants in the Hebrew Bible|Textual variants in the New Testament}}