Editing Biotechnology (section)

==History==
[[File:The Brewer designed and engraved in the Sixteenth. Century by J Amman.png|upright|thumb|[[Brewing]] was an early application of biotechnology.]]

{{Main|History of biotechnology}}

Although not normally what first comes to mind, many forms of human-derived [[agriculture]] clearly fit the broad definition of "utilizing a biotechnological system to make products". Indeed, the cultivation of plants may be viewed as the earliest biotechnological enterprise.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}}

[[Agriculture]] has been theorized to have become the dominant way of producing food since the [[Neolithic Revolution]]. Through early biotechnology, the earliest farmers selected and bred the best-suited crops (e.g., those with the highest yields) to produce enough food to support a growing population. As crops and fields became increasingly large and difficult to maintain, it was discovered that specific organisms and their by-products could effectively [[fertilize]], [[nitrogen fixation|restore nitrogen]], and [[pesticide|control pests]]. Throughout the history of agriculture, farmers have inadvertently altered the genetics of their crops through introducing them to new environments and [[plant breeding|breeding]] them with other plants — one of the first forms of biotechnology.{{clarify|date=February 2022}}

These processes also were included in early fermentation of [[beer]].<ref>See {{Cite book |last=Arnold |first=John P. |title=Origin and History of Beer and Brewing: From Prehistoric Times to the Beginning of Brewing Science and Technology |publisher=BeerBooks |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-9662084-1-2 |location=Cleveland, Ohio |page=34 |oclc=71834130 |name-list-style=vanc}}.</ref> These processes were introduced in early [[Mesopotamia]], [[Egypt]], [[China]] and [[India]], and still use the same basic biological methods. In [[brewing]], malted grains (containing [[enzyme]]s) convert starch from grains into sugar and then adding specific [[yeast]]s to produce beer. In this process, [[carbohydrate]]s in the grains broke down into alcohols, such as ethanol. Later, other cultures produced the process of [[lactic acid fermentation]], which produced other preserved foods, such as [[soy sauce]]. Fermentation was also used in this time period to produce [[leavened bread]]. Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until [[Louis Pasteur]]'s work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}}

Before the time of [[Charles Darwin]]'s work and life, animal and plant scientists had already used selective breeding. Darwin added to that body of work with his scientific observations about the ability of science to change species. These accounts contributed to Darwin's theory of natural selection.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cole-Turner |first=Ronald |date=2003 |title=Biotechnology |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3404200058.html |journal=Encyclopedia of Science and Religion |access-date=December 7, 2014 |name-list-style=vanc |archive-date=October 25, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091025010817/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3404200058.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

For thousands of years, humans have used selective breeding to improve the production of crops and livestock to use them for food. In selective breeding, organisms with desirable characteristics are mated to produce offspring with the same characteristics. For example, this technique was used with corn to produce the largest and sweetest crops.<ref name="Thieman">{{Cite book |title=Introduction to Biotechnology |vauthors=Thieman WJ, Palladino MA |publisher=Pearson/Benjamin Cummings |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-321-49145-9}}</ref>

In the early twentieth century scientists gained a greater understanding of [[microbiology]] and explored ways of manufacturing specific products. In 1917, [[Chaim Weizmann]] first used a pure microbiological culture in an industrial process, that of manufacturing [[corn starch]] using ''[[Clostridium acetobutylicum]],'' to produce [[acetone]], which the [[United Kingdom]] desperately needed to manufacture [[explosive]]s during [[World War I]].<ref name="Springham_biotechnology">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9GY5DCr6LD4C |title=Biotechnology: The Science and the Business |vauthors=Springham D, Springham G, Moses V, Cape RE |publisher=CRC Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-90-5702-407-8 |page=1}}</ref>

Biotechnology has also led to the development of antibiotics. In 1928, [[Alexander Fleming]] discovered the mold ''[[Penicillium]]''. His work led to the purification of the antibiotic formed by the mold by [[Howard Florey]], [[Ernst Boris Chain]] and [[Norman Heatley]] – to form what we today know as [[penicillin]]. In 1940, penicillin became available for medicinal use to treat bacterial infections in humans.<ref name="Thieman" />

The field of modern biotechnology is generally thought of as having been born in 1971 when Paul Berg's (Stanford) experiments in gene splicing had early success. [[Herbert Boyer|Herbert W. Boyer]] (Univ. Calif. at San Francisco) and [[Stanley Norman Cohen|Stanley N. Cohen]] (Stanford) significantly advanced the new technology in 1972 by transferring genetic material into a bacterium, such that the imported material would be reproduced. The commercial viability of a biotechnology industry was significantly expanded on June 16, 1980, when the [[United States Supreme Court]] ruled that a [[genetic engineering|genetically modified]] [[microorganism]] could be [[patent]]ed in the case of ''[[Diamond v. Chakrabarty]]''.<ref name="DiamondvChakrabarty">"[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=447&invol=303 Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 447 U.S. 303 (1980). No. 79-139] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628191938/http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=447&invol=303 |date=June 28, 2011 }}." ''[[United States Supreme Court]].'' June 16, 1980. Retrieved on May 4, 2007.</ref> Indian-born [[Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty|Ananda Chakrabarty]], working for [[General Electric]], had modified a bacterium (of the genus ''[[Pseudomonas]]'') capable of breaking down crude oil, which he proposed to use in treating oil spills. (Chakrabarty's work did not involve gene manipulation but rather the transfer of entire organelles between strains of the ''Pseudomonas'' bacterium).{{citation needed|date=May 2024}}

The [[MOSFET]] invented at Bell Labs between 1955 and 1960,<ref>{{Cite patent|number=US2802760A|title=Oxidation of semiconductive surfaces for controlled diffusion|gdate=1957-08-13|invent1=Lincoln|invent2=Frosch|inventor1-first=Derick|inventor2-first=Carl J.|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US2802760A}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last1=Huff |first1=Howard |last2=Riordan |first2=Michael |date=2007-09-01 |title=Frosch and Derick: Fifty Years Later (Foreword) |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/2.F02073IF |journal=The Electrochemical Society Interface |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=29 |doi=10.1149/2.F02073IF |issn=1064-8208|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Frosch |first1=C. J. |last2=Derick |first2=L |date=1957 |title=Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/1.2428650 |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society |language=en |volume=104 |issue=9 |pages=547 |doi=10.1149/1.2428650|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=KAHNG |first=D. |date=1961 |title=Silicon-Silicon Dioxide Surface Device |url=https://doi.org/10.1142/9789814503464_0076 |journal=Technical Memorandum of Bell Laboratories |pages=583–596 |doi=10.1142/9789814503464_0076 |isbn=978-981-02-0209-5|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lojek |first=Bo |title=History of Semiconductor Engineering |date=2007 |publisher=Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-540-34258-8 |location=Berlin, Heidelberg |page=321}}</ref><ref name="Lojek1202">{{cite book |last1=Lojek |first1=Bo |title=History of Semiconductor Engineering |date=2007 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=9783540342588 |page=120}}</ref> Two years later, [[Leland C. Clark]] and Champ Lyons invented the first [[biosensor]] in 1962.<ref name="Park">{{Cite journal |last1=Park |first1=Jeho |last2=Nguyen |first2=Hoang Hiep |last3=Woubit |first3=Abdela |last4=Kim |first4=Moonil |s2cid=55557610 |date=2014 |title=Applications of Field-Effect Transistor (FET){{ndash}}Type Biosensors |journal=[[Applied Science and Convergence Technology]] |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=61–71 |doi=10.5757/ASCT.2014.23.2.61 |issn=2288-6559|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=Leland C. |last2=Lyons |first2=Champ |date=1962 |title=Electrode Systems for Continuous Monitoring in Cardiovascular Surgery |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume=102 |issue=1 |pages=29–45 |bibcode=1962NYASA.102...29C |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1962.tb13623.x |issn=1749-6632 |pmid=14021529 |s2cid=33342483 |author1-link=Leland Clark}}</ref> [[Bio-FET|Biosensor MOSFETs]] were later developed, and they have since been widely used to measure [[physics|physical]], [[chemistry|chemical]], [[biological]] and [[Ecology|environmental]] parameters.<ref name="Bergveld">{{Cite journal |last=Bergveld |first=Piet |date=October 1985 |title=The impact of MOSFET-based sensors |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/11473091.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/11473091.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |journal=Sensors and Actuators |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=109–127 |bibcode=1985SeAc....8..109B |doi=10.1016/0250-6874(85)87009-8 |issn=0250-6874 |author1-link=Piet Bergveld}}</ref> The first BioFET was the [[ion-sensitive field-effect transistor]] (ISFET), invented by [[Piet Bergveld]] in 1970.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chris Toumazou |last2=Pantelis Georgiou |date=December 2011 |title=40 years of ISFET technology:From neuronal sensing to DNA sequencing |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260616066 |journal=[[Electronics Letters]] |access-date=May 13, 2016}}</ref><ref name="Bergveld1970">{{Cite journal |last=Bergveld |first=P. |date=January 1970 |title=Development of an Ion-Sensitive Solid-State Device for Neurophysiological Measurements |journal=[[IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering]] |volume=BME-17 |issue=1 |pages=70–71 |doi=10.1109/TBME.1970.4502688 |pmid=5441220}}</ref> It is a special type of MOSFET,<ref name="Bergveld" /> where the [[metal gate]] is replaced by an [[ion]]-sensitive [[membrane]], [[electrolyte]] solution and [[reference electrode]].<ref name="Schoning">{{Cite journal |last1=Schöning |first1=Michael J. |last2=Poghossian |first2=Arshak |date=September 10, 2002 |title=Recent advances in biologically sensitive field-effect transistors (BioFETs) |url=http://juser.fz-juelich.de/record/16078/files/12968.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://juser.fz-juelich.de/record/16078/files/12968.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |journal=Analyst |volume=127 |issue=9 |pages=1137–1151 |bibcode=2002Ana...127.1137S |doi=10.1039/B204444G |issn=1364-5528 |pmid=12375833}}</ref> The ISFET is widely used in [[biomedical]] applications, such as the detection of [[DNA hybridization]], [[biomarker]] detection from [[blood]], [[antibody]] detection, [[glucose]] measurement, [[pH]] sensing, and [[genetic technology]].<ref name="Schoning" />

By the mid-1980s, other BioFETs had been developed, including the [[gas sensor]] FET (GASFET), [[pressure sensor]] FET (PRESSFET), [[chemical field-effect transistor]] (ChemFET), [[ISFET|reference ISFET]] (REFET), enzyme-modified FET (ENFET) and immunologically modified FET (IMFET).<ref name="Bergveld" /> By the early 2000s, BioFETs such as the [[DNA field-effect transistor]] (DNAFET), [[Genetically modified|gene-modified]] FET (GenFET) and [[Membrane potential|cell-potential]] BioFET (CPFET) had been developed.<ref name="Schoning" />

A factor influencing the biotechnology sector's success is improved intellectual property rights legislation—and enforcement—worldwide, as well as strengthened demand for medical and pharmaceutical products.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080402034432/http://www.ibisworld.com/pressrelease/pressrelease.aspx?prid=115 VoIP Providers And Corn Farmers Can Expect To Have Bumper Years In 2008 And Beyond, According To The Latest Research Released By Business Information Analysts At IBISWorld]. Los Angeles (March 19, 2008)</ref>

Rising demand for biofuels is expected to be good news for the biotechnology sector, with the [[United States Department of Energy|Department of Energy]] estimating [[ethanol]] usage could reduce U.S. petroleum-derived fuel consumption by up to 30% by 2030. The biotechnology sector has allowed the U.S. farming industry to rapidly increase its supply of corn and soybeans—the main inputs into biofuels—by developing genetically modified seeds that resist pests and drought. By increasing farm productivity, biotechnology boosts biofuel production.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-technology-1/The-Recession-List---Top-10-Industries-to-Fly-and-Flop-in-2008-4076-3/ |title=The Recession List - Top 10 Industries to Fly and Flop in 2008 |date=2008-03-19 |publisher=Bio-Medicine.org |access-date=May 19, 2008 |archive-date=June 2, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080602160516/http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-technology-1/The-Recession-List---Top-10-Industries-to-Fly-and-Flop-in-2008-4076-3/ }}</ref>