Editing Blade (section)

==Physics==
A simple blade intended for cutting has two faces that meet at an edge. Ideally, this edge would have no roundness but in practice, all edges can be seen to be rounded to some degree under magnification either optically or with an electron microscope. Force is applied to the blade, either from the handle or pressing on the back of the blade. The handle or back of the blade has a large [[area]] compared to the fine edge. This concentration of applied [[force]] onto the small edge area increases the [[pressure]] exerted by the edge. It is this high pressure that allows a blade to cut through a material by breaking the bonds between the molecules, crystals, fibers, etc. in the material. This necessitates the blade being strong enough to resist breaking before the other material gives way.

===Geometry===
[[File: Whale knife hg.jpg|thumb|Blade of a whale knife]]

The angle at which the faces meet is important as a larger angle will make for a duller blade while making the edge stronger. A stronger edge is less likely to dull from fracture or have the edge roll out of shape.

The shape of the blade is also important. A thicker blade will be heavier and stronger and stiffer than a thinner one of similar design while also making it experience more drag while slicing or piercing. A filleting knife will be thin enough to be very flexible while a carving knife will be thicker and stiffer; a dagger will be thin so it can pierce, while a camping knife will be thicker so it can be stronger and more durable. A strongly curved edge, like a [[talwar]], will allow the user to draw the edge of the blade against an opponent even while close to the opponent where a straight sword would be more difficult to pull in the same fashion. The curved edge of an axe means that only a small length of the edge will initially strike the tree, concentrating force as does a thinner edge, whereas a straight edge could potentially land with the full length of its edge against a flat section of the tree. A splitting maul has a convex section to avoid getting stuck in the wood where chopping axes can be flat or even concave. A [[khopesh]], [[falchion]], or [[kukri]] is angled and/or weighted at the distal end so that force is concentrated at the faster moving, heavier part of the blade maximizing cutting power and making it largely unsuitable for thrusting, whereas a [[rapier]] is thin and tapered allowing it to pierce and be moved with more agility while reducing its chopping power compared to a similarly sized sword.

A serrated edge, such as on a [[saw]] or a [[Kitchen knife#Bread knife|bread knife]], concentrates force onto the tips of the serrations which increases pressure as well as allowing soft or fibrous material (like wood, rope, bread, and vegetables) to expand into the spaces between serrations. Whereas pushing any knife, even a bread knife, down onto a bread loaf will just squash the loaf as bread has a low [[elastic modulus]] (is soft) but high [[yield (engineering)|yield strain]] (loosely, can be stretched or squashed by a large proportion without breaking), drawing serrations across the loaf with little downward force will allow each serration to simultaneously cut the bread with much less deformation of the loaf. Similarly, pushing on a rope tends to squash the rope while drawing serrations across it sheers the rope fibers. Drawing a smooth blade is less effective as the blade is parallel to the direction draw but the serrations of a serrated blade are at an angle to the fibers. Serrations on knives are often symmetric allowing the blade to cut on both the forward and reverse strokes of a cut, a notable exception being Veff [[serration]]s which are designed to maximize cutting power while moving the blade away from the user. Saw blade serrations, for both wood and metal, are typically asymmetrical so that they cut while moving in only one direction. (Saws act by abrading a material into dust along a narrow channel, the [[kerf]], whereas knives and similar act by forcing the material apart. This means that saws result in a loss of material and the serrations of a saw also serve to carry metal [[swarf]] and [[sawdust]] out of the cut channel.)

[[Fuller (weapon)|Fullers]] are longitudinal channels either forged into the blade or later machined/milled out of the blade though the latter process is less desirable. This loss of material necessarily weakens the blade but serves to make the blade lighter without sacrificing stiffness. The same principle is applied in the manufacture of beams such as [[I-beam]]s. Fullers are only of significant utility in swords. In most knives there is so little material removed by the fuller that it makes little difference to the weight of the blade and they are largely cosmetic.

===Materials===
Typically blades are made from a material that is about as [[hardness|hard]], though usually harder, than the material to be cut. Insufficiently hard blades will be unable to cut a material or will wear away quickly as hardness is related to a material's ability to resist [[abrasion (mechanical)|abrasion]]. However, blades must also be [[toughness|tough]] enough to resist the dynamic load of impact and as a general rule the harder a blade the less tough (the more brittle) a material. For example, a steel axehead is much harder than the wood it is intended to cut and is sufficiently tough to resist the impact resulting when swung against a tree while a ceramic kitchen knife, harder than steel, is very brittle (has low toughness) and can easily shatter if dropped onto the floor or twisted while inside the food it is cutting or carelessly stored under other kitchen utensils. This creates a tension between the intended use of the blade, the material it is to be made from, and any manufacturing processes (such as [[heat treatment]] in the case of [[steel]] blades that will affect a blade's hardness and toughness). A balance must be found between the sharpness and how well it can last. Methods that can circumvent this include [[differential hardening]]. This method yields an edge that can hold its sharpness as well as a body that is tough.<ref name="thearma.org; edge damage">{{cite web|url=http://www.thearma.org/essays/damagededge.htm|title=Edge Damage on Swords|website=www.thearma.org|access-date=20 March 2018}}</ref>

====Non-metals====
{{See also|Blade (archaeology)}}
Prehistorically, and in less technologically advanced cultures even into modern times, tool and weapon blades have been made from wood, bone, and stone.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Driscoll|first1=Killian|last2=García-Rojas|first2=Maite|title=Their lips are sealed: identifying hard stone, soft stone, and antler hammer direct percussion in Palaeolithic prismatic blade production|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|date=July 2014|volume=47|pages=134–141|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2014.04.008|url=http://lithicsireland.ie/driscoll_garcia_rojas_2014_identifying_palaeolithic_blade_production_journal_archaeological_science_47.pdf|access-date=19 July 2017}}</ref> Most woods are exceptionally poor at holding edges and bone and stone suffer from brittleness making them suffer from fracture when striking or struck. In modern times stone, in the form of obsidian, is used in some medical scalpels as it is capable of being formed into an exceedingly fine edge. [[Ceramic knife|Ceramic knives]] are non-metallic and non-magnetic. As non-metals do not corrode they remain rust and corrosion free but they suffer from similar faults as stone and bone, being rather brittle and almost entirely inflexible. They are harder than metal knives and so more difficult to sharpen, and some ceramic knives may be as hard or harder than some sharpening stones. For example, [[Sapphire#Synthetic sapphire|synthetic sapphire]] is harder than natural sharpening stones and is as hard as alumina sharpening stones. [[Zirconium dioxide]] is also harder than garnet sharpening stones and is nearly as hard as alumina. Both require diamond stones or silicon carbide stones to sharpen and care has to be taken to avoid chipping the blade. As such ceramic knives are seldom used outside of a kitchen and they are still quite uncommon. Plastic knives are difficult to make sharp and poorly retain an edge. They are largely used as low cost, disposable utensils or as children's utensils or in environments such as air travel where metal blades are prohibited. They are often serrated to compensate for their general lack of sharpness but, as evidenced by the fact they can cut food, they are still capable of inflicting injury. Plastic blades of designs other than disposable cutlery are prohibited or restricted in some jurisdictions as they are undetectable by metal detectors.

====Metals====

{{see also|Metallurgy#History}}

Native [[copper]] was used to make blades by ancient civilizations due to its availability. Copper's comparative softness causes it to deform easily; it does not hold an edge well and is poorly suited for working stone. [[Bronze]] is superior in this regard, and was taken up by [[Bronze Age|later]] civilizations. Both bronze and copper can be [[work hardening|work hardened]] by hitting the metal with a hammer. With technological advancement in smelting, [[Iron Age|iron]] came to be used in the manufacturing of blades. [[Steel]], a range of alloys made from iron, has become the metal of choice for the modern age.

Various alloys of steel can be made which offer a wide range of physical and chemical properties desirable for blades. For example, surgical scalpels are often made of stainless steel so that they remain free of rust and largely chemically inert; tool steels are hard and impact resistant (and often expensive as retaining toughness and hardness requires expensive alloying materials, and, being hard, they are difficult to make into their finished shape) and some are designed to resist changes to their physical properties at high temperatures. Steels can be further heat treated to optimize their toughness, which is important for impact blades, or their hardness, which allows them to retain an edge well with use (although harder metals require more effort to sharpen).

====Combined materials and heat-treatments====
It is possible to combine different materials, or different heat treatments, to produce desirable qualities in a blade. For example, the finest Japanese swords were routinely made of up to seven sections of metals and even poorer quality swords were often made of two. These would include soft irons that could absorb the energy of impact without fracturing but which would bend and poorly retain an edge, and hard steels more liable to shatter on impact but which retained an edge well. The combination provided a sword that would resist impact while remaining sharp, even though the edge could chip if abused. [[Pattern welding]] involved [[forging]] together twisted bars of soft (bendable) low carbon and hard (brittle) higher carbon iron.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Maryon | first = Herbert | author-link = Herbert Maryon | date = 1948 | title = A Sword of the Nydam Type from Ely Fields Farm, near Ely | journal = Proceedings of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society | volume = XLI | pages = 73–76 | doi = 10.5284/1034398 }}</ref> This was done because furnaces of the time were typically able to produce only one grade or the other, and neither was well suited for more than a very limited use blade. The ability of modern steelmakers to produce very high-quality steels of various compositions has largely relegated this technique to either historical recreations or to artistic works. Acid etching and polishing blades made of different grades of steel can be used to produce decorative or artistic effects.

Japanese sword makers developed the technique of differential hardening by covering their sword blades in different thicknesses of clay before [[quenching]]. Thinner clay allowed the heated metal to cool faster, particularly along the edge. Faster cooling resulted in a finer crystal structure, resulting in a blade with a hard edge but a more flexible body. European sword makers produced similar results using [[differential tempering]].

===Dulling===
Blades dull with use and abuse. This is particularly true of acute blades and those made of soft materials. Dulling usually occurs due to contact between the blade and a hard substance such as ceramic, stone, bone, glass, or metal.
[[File:Common Edge Deformations.jpg|alt=First, spiral shearing occurs when a soft edge forms a metal ribbon, stripping away material but allowing the blade to be re-sharpened. Second, impact deformation happens when the blade strikes a hard object, creating divots, rolling metal, and potentially stressing the backbone of the knife. This often requires material removal to restore the edge. Third, scrapes appear on the sides of the blade after use. While initially cosmetic, these can lead to stress fractures and blade failure if significant material is lost. These examples demonstrate how a blade's material and sharpness degrade over time.|thumb|The figure illustrates four common blade deformations that can occur due to use or misuse. Images captured using a stereo microscope. ]]
The more acute the blade, the more easily it will dull. As the blade near the edge is thinner, there is little material to remove before the edge is worn away to a thicker section. Thin edges can also roll over when force is applied it them, forming a section like the bottom part of a letter "J". For this reason, [[straight edge razor]]s are frequently stropped to straighten the edge.

Drawing a blade across any material tends to abrade both the blade, usually making it duller, and the cut material. Though softer than glass or many types of stone used in the kitchen, steel edges can still scratch these surfaces. The resulting scratch is full of very fine particles of ground glass or stone which will very quickly abrade the blade's edge and so dull it.

In times when swords were regularly used in warfare, they required frequent sharpening because of dulling from contact with rigid armor, mail, metal rimmed shields, or other swords,<ref name="thearma.org; edge damage"/> for example. Particularly, hitting the edge of another sword by accident or in an emergency could chip away metal and even cause cracks through the blade.<ref>Yang, Jwing-Ming (1999). ''Taiji Sword, Classical Yang Style''. YMAA Publications, p. 20. {{ISBN|978-1-886969-74-2}}</ref> Soft-cored blades are more resistant to fracturing on impact.

===Nail pulls===
Folding pocket knives often have a groove cut in the side of the blade near the spine. This is called a nail pull and allows the fingernail to be inserted to swing the blade out of the holder.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.allaboutpocketknives.com/knife_forum/viewtopic.php?f=2&t=48913|title=Blade Nail Nicks and Long Pulls – Old and New}}</ref>
[[File:clip point knife blade.jpg|thumb|none|Blade with a nail pull]]