Editing Blood bank (section)

==History==
[[File:Agote 1a transfusión.jpg|thumb|[[Luis Agote]] (''second from right'') overseeing one of the first safe and effective blood transfusions in 1914]]

While the first [[blood transfusion]]s were made directly from donor to receiver before [[Blood coagulation|coagulation]], it was discovered that by adding [[anticoagulant]] and [[Refrigeration|refrigerating]] the blood it was possible to store it for some days, thus opening the way for the development of blood banks. [[John Braxton Hicks]] was the first to experiment with chemical methods to prevent the coagulation of blood at [[St Mary's Hospital, London]], in the late 19th century. His attempts, using [[Sodium phosphates|phosphate of soda]], however, were unsuccessful.{{citation needed|date=December 2021}}

The first non-direct transfusion was performed on March&nbsp;27, 1914, by the [[Belgium|Belgian]] doctor [[Albert Hustin]], though this was a diluted solution of blood. The [[Argentina|Argentine]] doctor [[Luis Agote]] used a much less diluted solution in November of the same year. Both used [[Monosodium citrate|sodium citrate]] as an anticoagulant.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1001/jama.1940.02810160078030|title=Effect of External Temperature on Sedimentation Rate of Red Blood Corpuscles|year=1940|last1=Gordon|first1=Murray B.|journal=Journal of the American Medical Association|volume=114|issue=16}}</ref>

===First World War===
The [[World War I|First World War]] acted as a catalyst for the rapid development of blood banks and transfusion techniques. Inspired by the need to give blood to wounded soldiers in the absence of a donor, <ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2010 |title=The Rockefeller University Hospital Centennial – The First Blood Bank |url=https://centennial.rucares.org/index.php?page=blood_bank |access-date=2022-03-18 |website=centennial.rucares.org |publisher=The Rockefeller University}}</ref> [[Francis Peyton Rous]] at the [[Rockefeller University]] (then The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research) wanted to solve the problems of blood transfusion.<ref name=":3" /> With a colleague, Joseph R. Turner, he made two critical discoveries: blood typing was necessary to avoid blood clumping (coagulation) and blood samples could be preserved using chemical treatment.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |last=Brody |first=Jane E. |date=1970-02-17 |title=Dr. Peyton Rous, Nobel Laureate, Dies |language=en-US |pages=43 |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1970/02/17/archives/dr-peyton-rous-nobel-laureate-dies.html |access-date=2022-03-18 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Their report in March 1915 to identify possible blood preservative was of a failure. The experiments with gelatine, agar, blood serum extracts, starch and beef albumin proved useless.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rous |first1=P. |last2=Turner |first2=J. R. |date=1915-03-01 |title=On the preservation in vitro of living erythrocytes |url=http://ebm.sagepub.com/lookup/doi/10.3181/00379727-12-74 |journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine |language=en |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=122–124 |doi=10.3181/00379727-12-74 |issn=1535-3702 |s2cid=88016286|url-access=subscription }}</ref> 

In June 1915, they made the first important report in the ''[[Journal of the American Medical Association]]'' that agglutination could be avoided if the blood samples of the donor and recipient were tested before. They developed a rapid and simple method for testing blood compatibility in which coagulation and the suitability of the blood for transfusion could be easily determined. They used [[sodium citrate]] to dilute the blood samples, and after mixing the recipient's and donor's blood in 9:1 and 1:1 parts, blood would either clump or remain watery after 15 minutes. Their result with a medical advice was clear:<blockquote>[If] clumping is present in the 9:1 mixture and to a less degree or not at all in the 1:1 mixture, it is certain that the blood of the patient agglutinates that of the donor and may perhaps hemolyze it. Transfusion in such cases is dangerous. Clumping in the 1:1 mixture with little or none in the 9:1 indicates that the plasma of the prospective donor agglutinates the cells of the prospective recipient. The risk from transfusing is much less under such circumstances, but it may be doubted whether the blood is as useful as one which does not and is not agglutinated. A blood of the latter kind should always be chosen if possible.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rous |first1=Peyton |last2=Turner |first2=J. R. |date=1915 |title=A rapid and simple method of testing donors for transfusion |url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1915.02570500028011 |journal=Journal of the American Medical Association |volume=LXIV |issue=24 |pages=1980–1982 |doi=10.1001/jama.1915.02570500028011|url-access=subscription }}</ref></blockquote>Rous was well aware that Austrian physician [[Karl Landsteiner]] had discovered blood types a decade earlier, but the practical usage was not yet developed, as he described: "The fate of Landsteiner's effort to call attention to the practical bearing of the group differences in human bloods provides an exquisite instance of knowledge marking time on technique. Transfusion was still not done because (until at least 1915), the risk of clotting was too great."<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Rous |first1=P. |author-link=Francis Peyton Rous |year=1947 |title=Karl Landsteiner. 1868–1943 |journal=[[Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society]] |volume=5 |issue=15 |pages=294–324 |doi=10.1098/rsbm.1947.0002 |s2cid=161789667}}</ref> In February 1916, they reported in the ''[[Journal of Experimental Medicine]]'' the key method for blood preservation. They replaced the additive, gelatine, with a mixture sodium citrate and glucose ([[dextrose]]) solution and found: "in a mixture of 3 parts of human blood, 2 parts of [[Saline (medicine)|isotonic]] citrate solution (3.8 per cent sodium citrate in water), and 5 parts of isotonic dextrose solution (5.4 per cent dextrose in water), the cells remain intact for about 4 weeks."<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Rous |first1=Peyton |last2=Turner |first2=J. R. |date=1916 |title=The preservation of living red blood cells in vitro : i. Methods of preservation. |url=https://rupress.org/jem/article/23/2/219/8685/THE-PRESERVATION-OF-LIVING-RED-BLOOD-CELLS-IN |journal=Journal of Experimental Medicine |language=en |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=219–237 |doi=10.1084/jem.23.2.219 |issn=1540-9538 |pmc=2125399 |pmid=19867981}}</ref> A separate report indicates the use of citrate-saccharose (sucrose) could maintain blood cells for two weeks.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rous |first1=Peyton |last2=Turner |first2=J. R. |date=1916 |title=The preservation of living red blood cells in vitro: ii. The transfusion of kept cells. |url=https://rupress.org/jem/article/23/2/239/8672/THE-PRESERVATION-OF-LIVING-RED-BLOOD-CELLS-IN |journal=Journal of Experimental Medicine |language=en |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=239–248 |doi=10.1084/jem.23.2.239 |issn=1540-9538 |pmc=2125395 |pmid=19867982}}</ref> They noticed that the preserved bloods were just like fresh bloods and that they "function excellently when reintroduced into the body."<ref name=":0" /> The use of sodium citrate with sugar, sometimes known as Rous-Turner solution, was the main discovery that paved the way for the development of various blood preservation methods and blood bank.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hess |first=J. R. |date=2006 |title=An update on solutions for red cell storage |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1423-0410.2006.00778.x |journal=Vox Sanguinis |volume=91 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |doi=10.1111/j.1423-0410.2006.00778.x |issn=0042-9007 |pmid=16756596|s2cid=35894834 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hanigan |first1=W. C. |last2=King |first2=S. C. |date=1996 |title=Cold blood and clinical research during World War I |url=https://academic.oup.com/milmed/article/161/7/392/4843377 |journal=Military Medicine |volume=161 |issue=7 |pages=392–400 |doi=10.1093/milmed/161.7.392 |issn=0026-4075 |pmid=8754712|doi-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref>   

Canadian Lieutenant [[Lawrence Bruce Robertson]] was instrumental in persuading the [[Royal Army Medical Corps]] (RAMC) to adopt the use of blood transfusion at the [[Casualty Clearing Station]]s for the wounded. In October 1915, Robertson performed his first wartime transfusion with a syringe to a patient who had multiple shrapnel wounds. He followed this up with four subsequent transfusions in the following months, and his success was reported to Sir [[Walter Morley Fletcher]], director of the [[Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|Medical Research Committee]].{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}

[[File:Direct-blood-transfusion.jpg|thumb|left|World War II Russian syringe for direct inter-human blood transfusion]]

Robertson published his findings in the ''[[British Medical Journal]]'' in 1916, and—with the help of a few like minded individuals (including the eminent physician [[Edward William Archibald]])—was able to persuade the British authorities of the merits of blood transfusion. Robertson went on to establish the first blood transfusion apparatus at a Casualty Clearing Station on the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] in the spring of 1917.<ref name="Pelis">{{cite journal|author=Kim Pelis|title=Taking Credit: The Canadian Army Medical Corps and the British Conversion to Blood Transfusion in WWI|journal=Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_the_history_of_medicine_and_allied_sciences/v056/56.3pelis.html|year=2001|doi=10.1093/jhmas/56.3.238|volume=56|issue=3|pages=238–277|pmid=11552401|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

[[Oswald Hope Robertson]], a medical researcher and {{nowrap|U.S. Army}} officer, worked with Rous at the Rockefeller between 1915 and 1917, and learned the blood matching and preservation methods.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stansbury |first1=Lynn G. |last2=Hess |first2=John R. |date=2009 |title=Blood transfusion in World War I: the roles of Lawrence Bruce Robertson and Oswald Hope Robertson in the "most important medical advance of the war" |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0887-7963(09)00033-9 |journal=Transfusion Medicine Reviews |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=232–236 |doi=10.1016/j.tmrv.2009.03.007 |issn=1532-9496 |pmid=19539877|url-access=subscription }}</ref> He was attached to the RAMC in 1917, where he was instrumental in establishing the first blood banks, with soldiers as donors, in preparation for the anticipated [[Battle of Passchendaele|Third Battle of Ypres]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/redgold/history/timeline3.html|title=Red Gold: the Epic Story of Blood|publisher=PBS|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150510070430/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/redgold/history/timeline3.html|archive-date=2015-05-10}}</ref> He used [[Monosodium citrate|sodium citrate]] as the anticoagulant, and the blood was extracted from punctures in the vein, and was stored in bottles at British and American Casualty Clearing Stations along the Front. He also experimented with preserving separated [[red blood cell]]s in iced bottles.<ref name="Pelis"/> [[Geoffrey Keynes]], a British surgeon, developed a portable machine that could store blood to enable transfusions to be carried out more easily.

===Expansion===
[[File:A A Bogdanov.jpg|thumb|[[Alexander Bogdanov]] established a scientific institute to research the effects of blood transfusion in Moscow, 1925.]]

The world's first blood donor service was established in 1921 by the secretary of the [[British Red Cross]], [[Percy Lane Oliver]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Macqueen |first=Susan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n0_Vqz-V_T8C |title=The Great Ormond Street Hospital Manual of Children's Nursing Practices |author2=Bruce |first2=Elizabeth |author3=Gibson |first3=Faith |author-link3=Faith Gibson |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2012 |isbn=9781118274224 |page=75}}</ref> Volunteers were subjected to a series of physical tests to establish their [[blood group]]. The [[National Blood Service|London Blood Transfusion Service]] was free of charge and expanded rapidly. By 1925, it was providing services for almost 500 patients and it was incorporated into the structure of the British Red Cross in 1926. Similar systems were established in other cities including [[Sheffield]], [[Manchester]] and [[Norwich]], and the service's work began to attract international attention. Similar services were established in France, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Australia and Japan.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/redgold/innovators/bio_oliver.html|title=Percy Oliver|publisher=Red Gold: The Eipc Story of Blood|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150416153023/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/redgold/innovators/bio_oliver.html|archive-date=2015-04-16}}</ref>

Vladimir Shamov and [[Sergei Yudin (surgeon)|Sergei Yudin]] in the [[Soviet Union]] pioneered the [[Cadaveric blood transfusion|transfusion of cadaveric blood]] from recently deceased donors. Yudin performed such a transfusion successfully for the first time on March 23, 1930, and reported his first seven [[clinic]]al [[transfusions]] with cadaveric blood at the Fourth Congress of [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] Surgeons at Kharkiv in September. Also in 1930, Yudin organized the world's first blood bank at the Nikolay Sklifosovsky Institute, which set an example for the establishment of further blood banks in different regions of the Soviet Union and in other countries. By the mid-1930s the Soviet Union had set up a system of at least 65 large blood centers and more than 500 subsidiary ones, all storing "canned" blood and shipping it to all corners of the country.

[[File:Blood transfusion ww2 poster.jpg|thumb|left|British poster encouraging people to donate [[blood]] for the war effort]]

One of the earliest blood banks was established by [[Frederic Durán-Jordà]] during the [[Spanish Civil War]] in 1936. Duran joined the Transfusion Service at the [[Hospital de Sant Pau|Barcelona Hospital]] at the start of the conflict, but the hospital was soon overwhelmed by the demand for blood and the paucity of available donors. With support from the Department of Health of the [[Spanish Republican Army]], Duran established a blood bank for the use of wounded soldiers and civilians. The 300–400 ml of extracted blood was mixed with 10% citrate solution in a modified Duran Erlenmeyer flask. The blood was stored in a sterile glass enclosed under pressure at 2&nbsp;°C. During 30 months of work, the Transfusion Service of Barcelona registered almost 30,000 donors, and processed 9,000 liters of blood.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3QwXx_enKbcC|title=Blood Banking and Transfusion Medicine: Basic Principles & Practice|author=Christopher D. Hillyer|year=2007|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-0443069819}}</ref>

In 1937 [[Bernard Fantus]], director of therapeutics at the [[Cook County Hospital]] in [[Chicago]], established one of the first hospital blood banks in the [[United States]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor=Morris Fishbein, M.D. |encyclopedia=The New Illustrated Medical and Health Encyclopedia |title=Blood Banks |edition=Home Library |year=1976 |publisher=H. S. Stuttman Co |volume=1 |location=New York |page=220}}</ref> In creating a hospital laboratory that preserved, refrigerated and stored donor blood, Fantus originated the term "blood bank". Within a few years, hospital and community blood banks were established across the United States.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Kilduffe R, DeBakey M |title=The blood bank and the technique and therapeutics of transfusion|publisher=St. Louis: The C.V. Mosby Co.|year=1942|pages=196–197}}</ref>

[[Frederic Durán-Jordà]] fled to Britain in 1938, and worked with [[Janet Vaughan]] at the [[Royal Postgraduate Medical School]] at Hammersmith Hospital to create a system of national blood banks in London.<ref>{{cite book|last=Starr|first=D|title=Blood: An Epic History of Medicine and Commerce|year=1998|publisher=Little, Brown and company|isbn=0-316-91146-1|pages=84–87}}</ref> With the outbreak of [[Second World War|war]] looking imminent in 1938, the [[War Office]] created the Army Blood Supply Depot (ABSD) in Bristol headed by [[Lionel Whitby]] and in control of four large blood depots around the country. British policy through the war was to supply military personnel with blood from centralized depots, in contrast to the approach taken by the Americans and Germans where troops at the front were bled to provide required blood. The British method proved to be more successful at adequately meeting all requirements and over 700,000 donors were bled over the course of the war. This system evolved into the [[National Blood Service|National Blood Transfusion Service]] established in 1946, the first national service to be implemented.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The History of Blood Ttansfusion|journal=British Journal of Haematology|year=2001|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2141.2000.02139.x|volume=110|issue=4|pages=758–767|pmid=11054057|last1=Giangrande|first1=P. L.|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Medical advances===
[[File:Private Roy W. Humphrey of Toledo, Ohio is being given blood plasma after he was wounded by shrapnel in Sicily on 8-9-43 - NARA - 197268.jpg|thumb|Wounded soldier is given [[blood plasma]] in [[Sicily]], 1943.]]

A blood collection program was initiated in the US in 1940 and [[Edwin Cohn]] pioneered the process of [[blood fractionation]]. He worked out the techniques for isolating the [[serum albumin]] fraction of [[blood plasma]], which is essential for maintaining the [[oncotic pressure|osmotic pressure]] in the [[blood vessel]]s, preventing their collapse.

The use of blood plasma as a substitute for whole blood and for transfusion purposes was proposed as early as 1918, in the correspondence columns of the ''[[British Medical Journal]]'', by Gordon R. Ward. At the onset of [[World War II]], liquid plasma was used in Britain. A large project, known as 'Blood for Britain' began in August 1940 to collect blood in [[New York City]] hospitals for the export of plasma to [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. A dried plasma package was developed, which reduced breakage and made the transportation, packaging, and storage much simpler.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/wwii/blood/chapter1.htm|title=Office of Medical History|website=history.amedd.army.mil|access-date=4 May 2018|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161218150653/http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/wwii/blood/chapter1.htm|archive-date=18 December 2016}}</ref>

[[File:Charles R Drew portrait.png|thumb|left|[[Charles R. Drew]] oversaw the production of blood plasma for shipping to Britain during WW2.]]

The resulting dried plasma package came in two tin cans containing 400&nbsp;cc bottles. One bottle contained enough [[distilled water]] to reconstitute the dried plasma contained within the other bottle. In about three minutes, the plasma would be ready to use and could stay fresh for around four hours.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/wwii/blood/chapter7.htm|title=Office of Medical History|website=history.amedd.army.mil|access-date=4 May 2018|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170609105142/http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/wwii/blood/chapter7.htm|archive-date=9 June 2017}}</ref> [[Charles R. Drew]] was appointed medical supervisor, and he was able to transform the [[test tube]] methods into the first successful mass production technique.

Another important breakthrough came in 1939–40 when [[Karl Landsteiner]], Alex Wiener, Philip Levine, and R.E. Stetson discovered the [[Rh blood group system]], which was found to be the cause of the majority of [[transfusion reaction]]s up to that time. Three years later, the introduction by [[John Freeman Loutit|J.F. Loutit]] and Patrick L. Mollison of [[acid-citrate-dextrose]] (ACD) solution, which reduced the volume of anticoagulant, permitted transfusions of greater volumes of blood and allowed longer-term storage.

Carl Walter and W.P. Murphy Jr. introduced the [[plastic bag]] for blood collection in 1950. Replacing breakable [[glass]] bottles with durable plastic bags allowed for the evolution of a collection system capable of safe and easy preparation of multiple blood components from a single unit of whole blood.

Further extending the shelf life of stored blood up to 42 days was an anticoagulant preservative, CPDA-1, introduced in 1979, which increased the blood supply and facilitated resource-sharing among blood banks.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sugita|first1=Yoshiki|last2=Simon|first2=Ernest R.|date=1965|title=The Mechanism of Action of Adenine in Red Cell Preservation|journal=Journal of Clinical Investigation|volume=44|issue=4|pages=629–642|issn=0021-9738|pmid=14278179|pmc=292538|doi=10.1172/JCI105176}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Simon|first1=Ernest R.|last2=Chapman|first2=Robert G.|last3=Finch|first3=Clement A.|date=1962|title=Adenine in Red Cell Preservation|journal=Journal of Clinical Investigation|volume=41|issue=2|pages=351–359|issn=0021-9738|pmid=14039291|pmc=289233|doi=10.1172/JCI104489}}</ref>