Editing Body image (section)

==Demographics==
===Women===
{{See also|Anorexia nervosa|Plastic surgery}}

"[[Social currency]] for girls and women continues to be rooted in physical appearance".<ref name=":12">{{cite book |last=Pierce |first=Cindy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZicxDQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |title=Sex, College, and Social Media: A Commonsense Guide to Navigating the Hookup Culture |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-351-81858-2 |pages=1–}}</ref> Women "all over the world are evaluated and oppressed by their appearances",<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.dazeddigital.com/fashion/article/30205/1/how-should-we-tackle-fashion-s-body-image-issues|title=How should we tackle fashion's body image issues? |date=March 4, 2016|magazine=Dazed|access-date=October 31, 2017}}</ref> including their [[Ageism|ages]], [[Colorism|skin tones]], or [[Anti-fat bias|sizes]].

Many advertisements promote insecurities in their audiences in order to sell them solutions, and so may present retouched images, sexual objectification, and explicit messages that promote "unrealistic images of beauty" and undermine body image,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thebalance.com/advertising-women-and-objectification-38754|title=Advertising Sets Impossible Standards for Women|publisher=The Balance|access-date=December 14, 2017}}</ref> particularly in female audiences.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Eating Disorders and the Role of the Media|last1=Spettigue|first1=Wendy|first2= Katherine A. |last2=Henderson|pmc=2533817|journal=The Canadian Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Review|date=February 2004 |volume=13|issue=1|pages=16–9|pmid=19030149}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hargreaves|first=Duane|s2cid=54012822|title=Longer-term implications of responsiveness to 'thin-ideal' television: support for a cumulative hypothesis of body image disturbance?|journal=European Eating Disorders Review|volume=11|issue=6|pages=465–477|doi=10.1002/erv.509|year=2003}}</ref><ref name="GrabeWard2008">{{cite journal |last1=Grabe |first1=Shelly |last2=Ward |first2=L. Monique |last3=Hyde |first3=Janet Shibley |s2cid=152637 |title=The role of the media in body image concerns among women: A meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies |journal=Psychological Bulletin |date=2008 |volume=134 |issue=3 |pages=460–476 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.134.3.460 |pmid=18444705 }}</ref>

Body dissatisfaction creates negative attitudes, a [[The Thin Ideal|damaging mentality]], and negative habits in young women.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=Edward|title=Evaluative Concerns and Personal Standards Perfectionism as Predictors of Body Dissatisfaction in Asian and European American Female College Students|journal=Journal of American College Health|volume=64|issue=7|pages=580–584|doi=10.1080/07448481.2016.1178121|pmid=27089244|year=2016|s2cid=29922678}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Zajac|first1=Agnieszka|last2=Shier|first2=Katarzyna|date=December 2011|title=Body Image Dysphoria and Motivation to Exercise: A Study of Canadian and Polish Women Participating in Yoga or Aerobics|journal=Archives of Psychiatry & Psychotherapy|volume=13|issue=4|page=67}}</ref> The emphasis on an ideal female body shape and size is psychologically detrimental to young women,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Linardon |first1=Jake |last2=McClure |first2=Zoe |last3=Tylka |first3=Tracy L. |last4=Fuller-Tyszkiewicz |first4=Matthew |date=2022 |title=Body appreciation and its psychological correlates: A systematic review and meta-analysis |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1740144522001188 |journal=Body Image |language=en |volume=42 |pages=287–296 |doi=10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.07.003|pmid=35878528 |s2cid=251001266 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> who may resort to grooming, dieting, and surgery in order to be happy.<ref name=":16">{{cite book|last1=Cash|first1=Thomas F. |last2=Smolak|first2=Linda |title=Body Image, Second Edition: A Handbook of Science, Practice, and Prevention|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bxPuCP9nCZoC&pg=PR1|year=2011|publisher=Guilford Press|isbn=978-1-60918-184-0|pages=1–}}</ref> "The prevalence of [[eating disorder]] development among college females is especially high, with rates up to 24% among college students."<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Javier|first1=Sarah|last2=Belgrave|first2=Faye|date=November 2015|title=Examination of Influences on Boy Dissatisfaction among Asian American College Females:Do Family, Media, or Peers Play a Role?|journal=Journal of American College Health|volume=63|issue=8|pages=579–583|doi=10.1080/07448481.2015.1031240|pmid=25825925|s2cid=6626052}}</ref> Body dissatisfaction in girls is associated with increased rate of [[smoking]] and a decrease in comfort with [[sexuality]] when they're older, which may lead them to consider cosmetic surgery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Healthy body image: tips for guiding girls.|url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/tween-and-teen-health/in-depth/healthy-body-image/art-20044668|publisher=MayoClinic}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Halliwell|first1=Emma|last2=Malson|first2=Helen|last3=Tischner|first3=Irmgard|date=March 1, 2011|title=Are Contemporary Media Images Which Seem to Display Women as Sexually Empowered Actually Harmful to Women?|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684310385217|journal=Psychology of Women Quarterly|language=en|volume=35|issue=1|pages=38–45|doi=10.1177/0361684310385217|s2cid=143146656|issn=0361-6843|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The pressure on women and girls "to cope with the effects of culturally induced body insecurity" is 'severe'.<ref name=":15">{{Cite web |last=Mair |first=Avril |date=November 21, 2014 |title=how the fashion industry affects the bodies of young women |url=https://i-d.co/article/how-the-fashion-industry-affects-the-bodies-of-young-women/ |access-date=November 16, 2017 |publisher=i-D}}</ref> Many reported that "their lives would be better if they were not judged by their looks and body shape, [as] this is leading to low self-esteem, eating disorders, mental health problems and depression."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Campbell |first=Denis |date=January 6, 2012 |title=Body image concerns more men than women, research finds |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/jan/06/body-image-concerns-men-more-than-women |access-date=October 31, 2017 |work=The Guardian}}</ref>

Women who compare themselves to images in the media believe they are more overweight than they actually are.<ref>Brodie, D., Slade, P., & Riley, V. (1991). Sex differences in body image perceptions.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 72(1), 73–74.</ref> One reason for this is because "idealised media images are routinely subjected to computer manipulation techniques, such as airbrushing (e.g. slimming thighs and increasing muscle tone). The resulting images present an unobtainable 'aesthetic perfection' that has no basis in biological reality."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Paraskeva |first=Nicole |year=2016 |title=Consumer opinion on social policy approaches to promoting positive body image: Airbrushed media images and disclaimer labels |url=http://eprints.uwe.ac.uk/26230/1/Airbrushing%20Paraskeva%20Lewis-Smith%20Diedrichs%20-%20FINAL%20COPY.pdf |journal=Journal of Health Psychology |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=164–175 |doi=10.1177/1359105315597052 |pmid=26261016 |s2cid=4589249 |via=sage Journals}}</ref>

Global eating disorder rates such as anorexia and [[Bulimia nervosa|bulimia]] are gradually rising in adolescent girls. The [[National Eating Disorders Association]], reported that 95% of individuals who suffer from an eating disorder are aged 12 to 26,<ref name=":17">{{Cite news|url=https://www.imperosoftware.com/uk/blog/national-eating-disorder-awareness-week-nedaw-what-you-need-to-know/|title=National Eating Disorder Awareness Week (NEDAW) {{!}} Impero|date=February 22, 2016|publisher=Impero UK|access-date=October 31, 2017|archive-date=November 7, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107024655/https://www.imperosoftware.com/uk/blog/national-eating-disorder-awareness-week-nedaw-what-you-need-to-know/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and anorexia is the third-most-common illness among teenagers.<ref name=":17" /> Teenage girls are most prone "to internalize negative messages and obsess about weight loss to obtain a thin appearance".<ref name=":18">{{Cite news|url=http://www.rawhide.org/blog/infographics/body-image-issues/|title=Body Image Issues: The Teen Male Edition [Infographic]|date=April 26, 2016|publisher=Rawhide|access-date=October 31, 2017}}</ref> "Cultural messages about beauty (i.e. what it is, how it should be cultivated, and how it will be rewarded) are often implicitly conveyed through media representations of women."<ref name="Rubin, L. 2004">{{cite journal | last1 = Rubin | first1 = L | year = 2004 | title = Exploring Feminist Women's Body Consciousness | journal = Psychology of Women Quarterly | volume = 28 | issue = 1| pages = 27–37 | doi=10.1111/j.1471-6402.2004.00120.x| s2cid = 145499712 }}</ref>

However, other researchers have contested the claims of the media effects paradigm. An article by Christopher Ferguson, Benjamin Winegard, and Bo Winegard, for example, argues that peer effects are much more likely to cause body dissatisfaction than media effects, and that media effects have been overemphasized.<ref name="tamiu" /> It also argues that one must be careful about making the leap from arguing that certain environmental conditions might cause body dissatisfaction to the claim that those conditions can cause diagnosable eating disorders.

When female [[undergraduates]] were exposed to depictions of thin women their body satisfaction decreased; when they were exposed to larger models, it rose.<ref name="Psicothema">{{cite journal |first1=Sonia |last1=Tucca |first2=Jennifer |last2=Peters |date=November 2008|title=Media influences on body satisfaction in female students |journal=Psicothema|volume= 20 |issue=4 |pages=521–524 |url=http://www.psicothema.com/pdf/3517.pdf |pmid=18940045}}</ref><ref name="Hawkins N et al.">{{cite journal |last1=Hawkins |date=Spring 2004|title=The Impact of Exposure to the Thin-Ideal Media Image on Women|journal=Eating Disorders|volume= 12 |issue= 1|pages=35–50, 16p, 2 charts|issn=1064-0266 |pmid=16864303 |doi=10.1080/10640260490267751|first1=N|last2=Richards|first2=PS|last3=Granley|first3=HM|last4=Stein|first4=DM|s2cid=28802161}}</ref> Many women engage in "fat talk" (speaking negatively about the weight-related size/shape of one's body), a behavior that has been associated with weight dissatisfaction, body surveillance, and body shame.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Engeln-Maddox | first1 = R. | last2 = Salk | first2 = R. H. | last3 = Miller | first3 = S. A. | year = 2012 | title = Assessing women's negative commentary on their own bodies: A psychometric investigation of the Negative Body Talk Scale | journal = Psychology of Women Quarterly | volume = 36 | issue = 2| pages = 162–178 | doi = 10.1177/0361684312441593 | s2cid = 144038786 }}</ref> Women who overhear others using fat talk may also experience an increase in body dissatisfaction and guilt.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Salk | first1 = R. H. | last2 = Engeln-Maddox | first2 = R. | year = 2011 | title = If you're fat then I'm humongous": Frequency, content, and impact of fat talk among college women | journal = Psychology of Women Quarterly | volume = 35 | pages = 18–25 | doi = 10.1177/0361684310384107 | s2cid = 145182587 | doi-access =  }}</ref>

Monteath and McCabe found that 44% of women express negative feelings about both individual body parts and their bodies as a whole.<ref name="MonteathMcCabe1997">{{cite journal|last1=Monteath|first1=Sheryl A.|last2=McCabe|first2=Marita P.|title=The Influence of Societal Factors on Female Body Image|journal=The Journal of Social Psychology|volume=137|issue=6|year=1997|pages=708–727|issn=0022-4545|doi=10.1080/00224549709595493|pmid=9414624}}</ref> 37.7% of young American males and 51% of young American females express dissatisfaction with their bodies.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Al Sabbah|first1=Haleama|last2=Vereecken|first2=Carine A |last3=Elgar|first3= Frank J |last4=Nansel|first4= Tonja |last5=Aasvee|first5= Katrin |last6=Abdeen|first6=Ziad |last7=Ojala|first7= Kristiina |last8=Ahluwalia|first8=Namanjeet |last9= Maes|first9= Lea |display-authors=3 |title=Body weight dissatisfaction and communication with parents among adolescents in 24 countries: international cross-sectional survey|journal=BMC Public Health|date=January 1, 2009|volume=9|issue=1|page=52|doi=10.1186/1471-2458-9-52 |pmid=19200369 |pmc=2645388 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

In America, the dieting industry earns roughly 40 billion dollars per year. A [[Harvard University|Harvard]] study (Fat Talk, Harvard University Press) published in 2000 revealed that 86% of teenage girls are on a [[Dieting|diet]] or believe they should be on one. Dieting has become common even among very young children: 51% of 9- and 10-year-old girls feel better about themselves when they are on diets.<ref>{{cite web|last=Nault|first=Kelly|title=How the Media Affects Teen Girls|url=http://www.insteadoftv.com/how-the-media-affects-teen-girls.html|access-date=March 26, 2012|archive-date=March 25, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325021341/http://www.insteadoftv.com/how-the-media-affects-teen-girls.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

According to a study by [[Dove (toiletries)|Dove]], only 4% of women thought they were beautiful,<ref name=":12" /> while approximately 70% of women and girls in the UK believed the media's portrayal of impractical beauty standards fueled their appearance anxieties.<ref name=":13">{{Cite news |date=June 21, 2016 |title=Dove's Largest Ever Body Image Report Proves The Media Needs To Up Its Game |publisher=HuffPost UK |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/dove-global-body-image-report_uk_5762a6a1e4b0681487dcc470 |access-date=November 1, 2017}}</ref> As a result, the [[United States Department of Health and Human Services|U.S. Department of Health and Human Services]] reported that, 91% of women were mostly unhappy with their bodies,<ref name=":14">{{Cite news |date=February 19, 2017 |title=Body Image Statistics |publisher=Statistic Brain |url=http://www.statisticbrain.com/body-image-statistics/ |access-date=November 1, 2017}}</ref> while 40% will consider cosmetic surgery to fix their flaws.<ref name=":14" />

=== Men ===
Similarly, media depictions idealizing a muscular physique have led to body dissatisfaction among young men. As many as 45% of teenage boys may suffer from [[body dysmorphic disorder]] (BDD), a mental illness whereby an individual compulsively focuses on self-perceived bodily flaws.<ref name=":18" /> Men may also suffer from [[muscle dysmorphia]] and may incessantly pursue muscularity without ever becoming fully satisfied with their physiques.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mosley|first=Philip E.|s2cid=20128770|date=May 1, 2009|title=Bigorexia: bodybuilding and muscle dysmorphia|journal=European Eating Disorders Review|volume=17|issue=3|pages=191–198|doi=10.1002/erv.897|pmid=18759381|issn=1099-0968}}</ref>

Research shows that the greatest impact on men's criticism of their bodies comes from their male peers, including likeminded individuals or potentially people they admire who are around the same age, as opposed to romantic partners, female peers, or male relatives like fathers or brothers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lin |first1=L |title=Appearance-based praise and criticism: does the source matter? |journal=Communication Research Reports |date=2020 |volume=37 |issue=4 |page=149 |doi=10.1080/08824096.2020.1796616|s2cid=229392378 }}</ref> 18% of adolescent males were most worried about their weights and physiques (Malcore, 2016); 29% frequently thought about their appearances.;<ref name=":18" /> 50% had recently complained about the way they looked.<ref name=":18" /> 25% of males report having been teased about their weight,<ref name=":18" /> while 33% specify social media as the source for self-consciousness.<ref name=":18" /> Following celebrities on social media sites makes it possible to interact personally with celebrities, which has been shown to influence male body image.<ref name="HoLee2016">{{cite journal|last1=Ho|first1=Shirley S.|last2=Lee|first2=Edmund W. J.|last3=Liao|first3=Youqing|title=Social Network Sites, Friends, and Celebrities: The Roles of Social Comparison and Celebrity Involvement in Adolescents' Body Image Dissatisfaction|journal=Social Media + Society|volume=2|issue=3|year=2016|pages=205630511666421|issn=2056-3051|doi=10.1177/2056305116664216|doi-access=free}}</ref> A number of respondents also admitted to being affected by negative body talk from others. 53% of boys cited advertisements as a "major source of pressure to look good; [though] social media (57%) and friends (68%) exerted more influence, while celebrities (49%) were slightly less persuasive".<ref name=":19">{{Cite web |title=Ads add to boys' body-image pressure |url=https://www.warc.com/NewsAndOpinion/News/Ads_add_to_boys_bodyimage_pressure/37212 |access-date=November 1, 2017 |publisher=WARC}}</ref> 22% of adolescent boys thought that the ideals depicted by the media were aspirational, while 33% called them healthy.<ref name=":19" />

The ideal male body is perceived to feature a narrow waist and hips, broad shoulders, a well-developed upper body, [and] toned "six-pack" abs.<ref name=":16" /> The figure may be traced back to an idealized male doll, [[G.I. Joe]]. The "bulked-up action heroes, along with the brawny characters in many video games, present an anatomically impossible ideal for boys, much as Barbie promotes proportions that are physically impossible for girls."<ref name="Adams2014">{{cite news|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/09/17/body-image-boys_n_5637975.html|title=It's Not Just Girls. Boys Struggle With Body Image, Too.|last=Adams|first=Rebecca|date=September 17, 2014|work=The Huffington Post|access-date=November 1, 2017}}</ref> Boys who are exposed to depictions of muscular warriors who solve problems with their fists may internalize the lesson that aggression and muscles are essential to masculinity.<ref name="Adams2014" />

Some studies have reported a higher incidence of body dissatisfaction among Korean boys and girls than among boys and girls living in the United States,<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1177/1077727X06286419 | volume=34 | issue=4 | title=Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Appearance Self-Schema, Body Image, Self-Esteem, and Dieting Behavior Between Korean and U.S. Women | journal=Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal | pages=350–365 | last1 = Jung | first1 = J.| year=2006 }}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{cite journal |last1=Jung |first1=J |last2=Forbes |first2=GB |last3=Lee |first3=Y |title=Body Dissatisfaction and Disordered Eating among Early Adolescents from Korea and the U.S. |journal=Sex Roles |date=2009 |volume=61 |issue=1–2 |pages=42–54 |doi=10.1007/s11199-009-9609-5 |s2cid=144938127 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225871728}}</ref> while noting that these studies fail to control for the slimmer and smaller size of Koreans as compared with Westerners.<ref>{{harvnb|Jung|Forbes|Lee|2009|p=44|ps=: "Unfortunately, the available studies are difficult to interpret because most of them have one or more important limitations. First, comparison groups from other cultures have been absent from most studies. This means it is extremely difficult to identify cross-cultural differences. Second, most studies have failed to control for body size. Because body dissatisfaction is related to body size(Grogan 1999), and Korean and other East Asian groups typically have bodies that are smaller and slimmer than Western bodies (Jung and Lee 2006), controls for body size are essential."}}</ref> A cross-cultural analysis of the United States and South Korea focusing on social media found that between South Korean men and American men, Korean men are more concerned with their body image in relation to their social media use.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=H-R |display-authors=etal |title=Social media use, body image, and psychological well-being: A cross-cultural comparison of Korea and the United States. |journal=Journal of Health Communication |date=2014 |volume=19 |issue=12 |pages=1343–1358 |doi=10.1080/10810730.2014.904022|pmid=24814665 |s2cid=10273278 }} "While social media use for self-status seeking is not related to body image in the United States, it is positively related to body image in Korea. Koreans who actively posted messages and pictures on various websites and blogs have a better body image than those who did not. Americans whose perceptions and attitudes are more deter-mined by internal attributes (Markus & Kitayama, 1991) are relatively free from the external influence of other people’s opinions in terms of their own body image. Although Americans use social media for self-status more than Koreans do, their social media use is not associated with their body image. In contrast, as they desire to live up to the social standards of body image (White & Lehman, 2005), Koreans are concerned with how others’ perceive them and require approval from others regarding their body image."</ref>

Teenage boys may participate in extreme workouts and weight training, and may abuse supplements and steroids to further increase muscle mass. In 2016, 10.5% acknowledged the use of muscle-enhancing substances,<ref name=":18" /> while 5 to 6% of respondents admitted to the use of steroids.<ref name=":18" /> Although dieting is often overlooked, a significant increase in eating disorders is present among men. Currently, males account for 1 in 4 of those suffering from eating disorders,<ref name=":18" /> while 31% have admitted to [[Purging disorder|purging]] or [[binge eating]] in the past.<ref name=":18" />

Men often desire up to 26 pounds of additional muscle mass.<ref name="Simon and Schuster">{{cite book|last1=Pope|first1=Harrison|last2=Phillips|first2=Katharine A. |last3=Olivardia|first3=Roberto |title=The Adonis Complex: The Secret Crisis of Male Body Obsession|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jo-LHyyIy_kC&pg=PA27|year=2000|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-684-86910-0}}</ref> Men who endorse traditional masculine ideas are more likely to desire additional muscle.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=McCreary|first1=Donald R.|last2=Saucier|first2=Deborah M.|last3=Courtenay|first3=Will H.|s2cid=53535560|title=The Drive for Muscularity and Masculinity: Testing the Associations Among Gender-Role Traits, Behaviors, Attitudes, and Conflict.|journal=Psychology of Men & Masculinity|volume=6| issue=2|year=2005|pages=83–94|issn=1939-151X|doi=10.1037/1524-9220.6.2.83}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kimmel|first1=Sara B.|first2=James R.|last2=Mahalik|title=Measuring masculine body ideal distress: Development of a measure|journal=International Journal of Men's Health|volume=3|issue=1|pages=1–10|year=2004|url=http://mensstudies.info/OJS/index.php/IJMH/article/download/433/pdf_105|access-date=December 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151008095650/http://mensstudies.info/OJS/index.php/IJMH/article/download/433/pdf_105|archive-date=October 8, 2015|url-status=dead|doi=10.3149/jmh.0301.1|doi-broken-date=November 1, 2024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> The connection between masculinity and muscle can be traced to [[classical antiquity]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sideris |first=A.|url=https://www.academia.edu/481380|title=The Athletic Body: Image and Power|journal=Imeros|volume=5|issue=1|year= 2005|pages= 287–308}}</ref>

Men with lower, more feminine [[waist–hip ratio]]s (WHR) feel less comfortable and self-report lower body esteem and [[self-efficacy]] than men with higher, more masculine, WHRs.<ref>{{cite journal| last1=Pazhoohi| first1=Farid| last2=Hosseinchari|first2=M.|last3=Doyle|first3=J. F.|title=Iranian men's waist-to-hip ratios, shoulder-to-hip ratios, body esteem and self-efficacy|journal=Journal of Evolutionary Psychology| volume=10| issue=2| year=2012| pages=61–67|issn=1789-2082|doi=10.1556/JEP.10.2012.2.2}}</ref>

=== Gender differences ===
Although body dissatisfaction is more common in women, men are becoming increasingly negatively affected.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Body image perceptions: Do gender differences exist? | journal = Psi Chi Journal of Undergraduate Research | year = 2010 | first1 = Maggie A. | last1 = Brennan |first2=Christopher E.|last2=Lalonde|first3=Jody L. |last3=Bain | volume = 15 | issue = 3 | pages = 130–8| type =  PDF|url=http://web.uvic.ca/psyc/lalonde/manuscripts/2010-Body%20Image.pdf | doi = 10.24839/1089-4136.JN15.3.130 }}</ref> In a [[longitudinal study]] that assessed body image across time and age between men and women, men placed greater significance on their physical appearances than women, even though women reported body image dissatisfaction more often. The difference was strongest among adolescents. One theory to explain the discrepancy is that women have already become accustomed and desensitized to media scrutiny.<ref name="PsycInfo 2010-24583-007">{{cite journal|last1=Mellor|first1=David|first2=Matthew|last2=Fuller-Tyszkiewicz|first3=Marita P.|last3=McCabe|first4=Lina A.|last4=Ricciardelli|date=July 15, 2010|title=Body image and self-esteem across age and gender: A short-term longitudinal study|journal=Sex Roles|type=PDF|volume=63|issue=9–10|pages=672–81|doi=10.1007/s11199-010-9813-3|s2cid=145386623}}<!--| access-date = 2012-06-26 --></ref>

Studies suggest that the significance placed upon body image improved among women as they got older; men in comparison showed little variation in their attitude.<ref name='PsycInfo 2011-30272-014'>{{cite journal | title = Gender and racial/ethnic differences in body image development among college students | journal = Body Image | date = January 2012 | first1 = Meghan M. | last1 = Gillen |first2=Eva S. |last2=Lefkowitz | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages = 126–30| type =  PDF | pmid=21983339 | doi=10.1016/j.bodyim.2011.09.004 | pmc=3246027}}</ref><ref name="PsycInfo 2009-11492-005">{{cite journal|last1=Baker|first1=Lucie|first2=Eyal|last2=Gringart|s2cid=55939513|date=August 2009|title=Body image and self-esteem in older adulthood|journal=Ageing & Society|type=PDF|volume=29|issue=6|pages=977–95|doi=10.1017/S0144686X09008721}}<!--| access-date = 2012-06-27 --></ref> Another suggested that "relative to men, women are considerably more psychologically aware of their appearances. Moreover, women's greater concern over body image has a greater impact on their daily lives."<ref name="Cash, T. F. 1997">{{cite journal | last1 = Cash | first1 = T. F. | last2 = Ancis | first2 = J. R. | year = 1997 | title = Gender attitudes, feminist identity, and body image among college women | journal = Sex Roles | volume = 36 | issue = 7/8| pages = 433–447 | doi=10.1007/bf02766682| s2cid = 144876192 }}</ref>

As men and women reach older age, body image takes on a different meaning. Research studies show that the importance attached to physical appearance decreases with age.<ref name="PsycInfo 2011-30272-014"/><ref name="Esnaola 21–9">{{cite journal | title = Body dissatisfaction and perceived sociocultural pressures | journal = Salud Mental | date = February 21, 2010 | first1 = Igor | last1 = Esnaola |first2=Arantzazu|last2=Rodríguez|first3=Alfredo |last3=Goñi | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | pages = 21–9| type =  PDF | access-date = June 26, 2012 |url=http://www.scielo.org.mx/pdf/sm/v33n1/v33n1a3.pdf}}</ref>

=== Weight ===
{{See also|Fat acceptance movement}}

The desire to lose weight is highly correlated with poor body image. Kashubeck-West ''et al.'' reported that when considering only men and women who desire to lose weight, sex differences in body image disappear.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kashubeck-West S, Mintz LB, Weigold I |title=Separating the Effects of Gender and Weight-Loss Desire on Body Satisfaction and Disordered Eating Behavior |journal=Sex Roles |volume=53 |issue=7–8 |pages=505–518 |date=October 2005 |doi=10.1007/s11199-005-7138-4 |s2cid=145544847 }}</ref>

In her book ''[[The Beauty Myth]]'', [[Naomi Wolf]] reported that "thirty-three thousand women told American researchers they would rather lose ten to fifteen pounds than achieve any other goal."<ref name=Wolf1991 /> Through repeated images of excessively thin women in media, advertisement, and modeling, thinness has become associated with not only beauty, but happiness and success. As Charisse Goodman put it in her article, "One Picture is Worth a Thousand Diets", advertisements have changed society's ideas of beauty and ugliness: "Indeed to judge by the phrasing of the ads, 'slender' and 'attractive' are one word, not two in the same fashion as 'fat' and 'ugly.'"

Research by Martin and Xavier (2010) shows that people feel more pressure from society to be thin after viewing ads featuring a slim model. Ads featuring a larger sized model resulted in less pressure to be thin. People also felt their actual body sizes were larger after viewing a slim model as compared to a larger model.<ref>{{cite journal | author1 = Martin Brett A. S. | first2 = Xavier | last2 = Robina | year = 2010 | title = How do consumers react to physically larger models? Effects of model body size, weight control beliefs and product type on evaluations and body perceptions | url = http://www.basmartin.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/Martin-and-Xavier-2010.pdf | journal = Journal of Strategic Marketing | volume = 8 | issue = 6 | pages = 489–501 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130801063704/http://www.basmartin.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/Martin-and-Xavier-2010.pdf | archive-date = August 1, 2013 | doi = 10.1080/0965254X.2010.525252 | s2cid = 167961694 }}</ref>

Many, like journalist [[Marisa Meltzer]], have argued this contemporary standard of beauty to be described as anorexic thinness, an unhealthy idea that is not representative of a natural human body: "Never before has the 'perfect' body been at such odds with our true size."<ref name=Wolf1991>{{cite book|last=Wolf|first=Naomi |author-link=Naomi Wolf|title=The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty are Used Against Women|url=https://archive.org/details/beautymythhowima00wolf_1|url-access=registration|year=1991|publisher=Vintage|isbn=978-0-09-986190-4}}</ref><ref>Meltzer, Marisa. "Absolutely Flabulous". Blogs & Stories. The Daily Beast, September 2, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Lunsford|editor-first1=Andrea A. |editor-last2=Ruszkiewicz|editor-first2=John J. |editor-last3=Walters|editor-first3=Keith |title=Everything's an Argument with Readings|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=puCAMAEACAAJ|edition=4th|year=2013|publisher=Bedford Books |isbn=978-1-4576-3149-8|last=Goodman|first= W. Charisse|chapter=One Picture is Worth a Thousand Diets|pages=605–611}}</ref> However, these figures do not distinguish between people at a low or healthy weight who are in fact overweight, between those whose self-perception as being overweight is incorrect and those whose perception of being overweight is correct.

Post-1997 studies<ref>{{cite web|title = Obesity Statistics: U.S. Obesity Trends|url = http://www.naaso.org/statistics/obesity_trends.asp|publisher = North American Association for the Study of Obesity|access-date = March 8, 2008|year = 2006|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060206185213/http://www.naaso.org/statistics/obesity_trends.asp|archive-date = February 6, 2006}}</ref> indicate that around 64% of American adults are overweight, such that if the 56%/40% female/male dissatisfaction rates in the ''[[Psychology Today]]'' study have held steady since its release, those dissatisfaction rates are if anything disproportionately low: although some individuals continue to believe themselves to be overweight when they are not, those persons are now outnumbered by persons who might be expected to be dissatisfied with their bodies but are not.

Some argue that the [[social pressure]] to lose weight has lessened what is described in both popular and academic parlance as an "[[obesity epidemic]]",<ref>{{cite web|title = Statistics Related to Overweight and Obesity|url = http://www.win.niddk.nih.gov/statistics/|publisher = [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]]|year = 2006|access-date = January 23, 2009|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090130040952/http://win.niddk.nih.gov/statistics/|archive-date = January 30, 2009|url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = The obesity epidemic in the United States—gender, age, socioeconomic, racial/ethnic, and geographic characteristics: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis|last1 = Wang|first1 = Youfa|last2 = Beydoun|first2 = May A|journal = Epidemiologic Reviews|year = 2007 |doi = 10.1093/epirev/mxm007|pmid = 17510091|volume = 29|pages = 6–28|doi-access = free}}</ref> despite the adverse effects.<ref name="ThompsonHeinberg1999">{{cite journal|last1=Thompson|first1=J. Kevin|last2=Heinberg|first2=Leslie J.|s2cid=8279216|title=The Media's Influence on Body Image Disturbance and Eating Disorders: We've Reviled Them, Now Can We Rehabilitate Them?|journal=Journal of Social Issues| volume=55| issue=2|year=1999| pages=339–353 |issn=0022-4537| doi=10.1111/0022-4537.00119}}</ref> Overweight children experience not only discrimination but overall body dissatisfaction, low self-esteem, [[social isolation]] and depression. Because of the negative stigma, the child may suffer severely from emotional and physical ailments that could persist past childhood into adulthood.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rankin |first1=Jean |last2=Matthews |first2=Lynsay |last3=Cobley |first3=Stephen |last4=Han |first4=Ahreum |last5=Sanders |first5=Ross |last6=Wiltshire |first6=Huw D. |last7=Baker |first7=Julien S. |date=2016-11-14 |title=Psychological consequences of childhood obesity: psychiatric comorbidity and prevention |journal=Adolescent Health, Medicine and Therapeutics |language=English |volume=7 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.2147/AHMT.S101631 |pmc=5115694 |pmid=27881930 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chao |first=Hai-Lun |date=2015-05-06 |editor-last=Hills |editor-first=Robert K |title=Body Image Change in Obese and Overweight Persons Enrolled in Weight Loss Intervention Programs: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=e0124036 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0124036 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4422747 |pmid=25946138|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1024036C |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Race ===
The association of light skin with moral virtue dates back at least to the [[medieval era]], and was reinforced during the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. The medieval theory that all races originated from the white race was an early source of the longstanding association of white bodies and beauty ideals with "normality" and other racial phenotypes as aberrant.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Camp|first1=Stephanie|title=Black Is Beautiful: An American History|journal=Journal of Southern History|date=April 2015|volume=3|page=678}}</ref> The 1960s [[Black is Beautiful]] movement attempted to end that mindset.

A lack of black women in the [[fashion industry]] contributes to body image issues among [[African-American]] women.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://cswr.columbia.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Bryant.-The-beauty-ideal-The-effects-of-European-standards-of-beauty-on-Black-women..pdf|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131210214658/http://cswr.columbia.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Bryant.-The-beauty-ideal-The-effects-of-European-standards-of-beauty-on-Black-women..pdf|url-status = dead|archive-date = December 10, 2013|title = The Beauty Ideal: The Effects of European Standards of Beauty on Black Women|last = Bryant|first = Susan L|date = n.d.|journal = Columbia Social Work Review|access-date = October 25, 2015}}</ref> However, a 2003 experiment presented three photographs of attractive [[white people|white]], [[black people|black]] and [[Asian people|Asian]] women to white, black and Asian students. The study concluded that Asian women and white women both reported similar levels of body dissatisfaction, while black women were less dissatisfied with their own appearances.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://www.allenmcconnell.net/pdfs/racialminorities-SAI-2003.pdf|title = Do Racial Minorities Respond in the Same Way to Mainstream Beauty Standards? Social Comparison Processes in Asian, Black, and White Women|last = McConnell|first = Allen|date = 2003|journal = Self and Identity| volume = 2|access-date = October 25, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|McConnell|2003|p=161|ps=: "As shown in Table 1, Asian targets were perceived to be equally attractive by Asian women and White women, but they were perceived as less attractive by Black women. Similarly, White targets were perceived to be equally attractive by Asian women and White women, but they were perceived as less attractive by Black women. Black targets, however, were perceived to be equally attractive by all participants. Thus, Asian women and White
women reacted equivalently to the target Asian, White, and Black women. However, Black women viewed outgroup targets as less attractive than did Asian and White participants, suggesting that Black women only viewed other Black target women as relevant social comparisons, consistent with our hypotheses."}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|McConnell|2003|p=161|ps=: ""As shown by participants’ attractiveness ratings of the mainstream standards of beauty and their ratings of the yearbook photographs, Black women were less likely
than Asian women or White women to report mainstream standards as attractive or
to perceive mainstream standards as relevant social comparisons. Accordingly, Black
women reported greater Overall Self-Attractiveness scores, as well as more positive
Self-BES scores than did Asian or White women, whose scores on these measures did
not differ from each other. Thus, Black women should also be less likely than Asian
women or White women to experience a drop in overall feelings of self-worth following exposure to mainstream standards of beauty. To assess the possibility that exposure to mainstream beauty standards affected self-esteem, a mixed-design
ANOVA was conducted to test whether there were racial differences (betweensubjects variable) between Time 1 and Time 2 Self-Esteem, which was a repeated measure. As Table 1 reveals, a significant main effect of race was found, F(2,167) ¼ 10.93, p < .001, indicating that Asian women’s (M ¼ 19.5) and White women’s (M ¼ 19.8) Self-Esteem were significantly lower than Black women’s Self-Esteem
(M ¼ 21.9). These results are consistent with past findings showing that Black selfesteem is as high as, or greater than, White self-esteem (Crocker & Major, 1989;Rosenberg, 1979; Wylie, 1979)."}}</ref> These findings are consistent with previous research showing that black women generally have higher self-esteem than white or Asian women in America.<ref>{{harvnb|McConnell|2003|p=161|ps=: "The current work indicates that Asian women resemble White women in their desire to strive for mainstream beauty ideals. However, both Asian women and White women differ from Black women, who apparently rejected mainstream standards for their comparisons. This is consistent with other research that shows
that Black women do not subscribe to the thinness ideals that are prescribed in mainstream culture (Hebl & Heatherton, 1998; Quinn & Crocker, 1998)."}}</ref>

One study found that, among women, East Asian women are more satisfied with their bodies than white women. East Asian men reported more body dissatisfaction than white males did.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barnett |first1=Heather L. |last2=Keel |first2=Pamela K. |last3=Conoscenti |first3=Lauren M. |title=Body Type Preferences in Asian and Caucasian College Students |journal=Sex Roles |date=2001 |volume=45 |issue=11 |pages=867–878 |doi=10.1023/A:1015600705749 |s2cid=141429057 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1015600705749 |language=en |issn=1573-2762|url-access=subscription }} "Post hoc tests revealed that among Caucasian students, women reported
greater body dissatisfaction compared to men, t(267) = −6.92, p <
.001. However, among Asian students, men reported more body
dissatisfaction than women, t(83) = −5.92, p < .001."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Barnett|Keel|Conoscenti|2001|ps=: "In this study, we examined body type preferences in females and
males of different ethnic groups. Similar to previous findings for
females, both Caucasian and Asian women rated their current
figure as larger than their ideal figure, repre- senting a desire to
be thinner. However, Asian women reported a current figure that was
similar to the ideal figure reported by Caucasian women. Thus, while
Caucasian and Asian women show the same patterns, Asian women in our
culture select a more extreme ideal of thinness. Similar to ethnic
differences in body size reported by women, Asian men were smaller
than Caucasian men. However, there was no difference in the ideal
figures selected by Caucasian and Asian men, resulting in a
discrepancy between current and ideal figures in only Asian males.
Specifically, Asian males re- ported an ideal figure that was larger
than their current figure. An interaction between gender and
ethnicity revealed that Caucasian females and Asian males reported
the largest degree of body dissatisfaction"}}</ref> Western men desire as much as 30 pounds more muscle mass than do Asian men.<ref name="Simon and Schuster" />

=== Sexuality ===
There is no scientific consensus on how a person's sexuality affects their body image. For example, a 2013 study found that lesbian-identifying women reported less body dissatisfaction than did heterosexual women.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Alvy |first1=Lisa M. |title=Do lesbian women have a better body image? Comparisons with heterosexual women and model of lesbian-specific factors |journal=Body Image |date=September 1, 2013 |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=524–534 |doi=10.1016/j.bodyim.2013.06.002 |pmid=23927850 }}</ref> In contrast, a 2015 study found no differences in weight satisfaction between heterosexual and lesbian and bisexual women, and no differences in the amount of pressure to be thin they experienced from the media, sexual partners, friends or family. This research did find that heterosexual women were more likely to have internalised the thin ideal (accepted the Western concept that thinness equals attractiveness) than lesbian and bisexual women.<ref name="Huxley et al 2015">{{cite journal |last1=Huxley |first1=CJ |title=An examination of the tripartite influence model of body image: Does women's sexual identity make a difference? |journal=Psychology of Women Quarterly |date=2015 |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=337–348 |doi=10.1177/0361684314554917 |s2cid=56269690 |url=http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/67058/1/WRAP_Huxley%20et%20al%20PWQ-13-035%20WRAP__.pdf }}</ref>

Lesbian and bisexual women have said that while they are often critical of mainstream body size/shape ideals these are still the ideals that they feel social pressure to conform to.<ref name="Huxley et al 2014">{{cite journal |last1=Huxley |first1=C |title=A qualitative exploration of whether lesbian and bisexual women are 'protected'from sociocultural pressure to be thin |journal=Journal of Health Psychology |date=2014 |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=273–284|doi=10.1177/1359105312468496 |pmid=23297393 |s2cid=22398466 |url=http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/53015/13/WRAP_Huxley_Huxley%20et%20al%202013%20JHP%20WRAP%20July%202013%20%282%29.pdf }}</ref> In a study conducted in 2017, Henrichs-Beck and Szymanski claimed that lesbian gender definition within the lesbian culture may dictate whether or not they are dissatisfied with their bodies.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Moreno-Domínguez|first1=Silvia|last2=Raposo|first2=Tania|last3=Elipe|first3=Paz|date=2019|title=Body Image and Sexual Dissatisfaction: Differences Among Heterosexual, Bisexual, and Lesbian Women|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|language=en|volume=10|page=903|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00903|pmid=31143139|pmc=6520663|issn=1664-1078|doi-access=free}}</ref> They suggested that lesbians who identified as more stereotypically 'feminine' were at greater risk of body dissatisfaction, while those who identified as more 'butch', were traditionally more satisfied with their bodies.<ref name=":2" /> Qualitative research with non-heterosexual women found that female sexual/romantic partners were a source of both body confidence and concerns. These women reported that while they compared their body size and shape to that of their partner, and could feel more self-conscious if their partner was slimmer than them, their attractions to women who did not conform to the narrow Western definition of ‘beauty’ gave them confidence in their own appearance.<ref name="Huxley et al 2011">{{cite journal |last1=Huxley |first1=CJ |title="It's a comparison thing, isn't it?" Lesbian and bisexual women's accounts of how partner relationships shape their feelings about their body and appearance. |journal=Psychology of Women Quarterly |date=2011 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=415–427 |doi=10.1177/0361684311410209 |s2cid=145515130 |url=http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/38387/1/WRAP_Huxley_PWQ-09-114-final.pdf }}</ref>

A 2005 study found that gay men were more likely than straight men to have body image dissatisfaction, diet more, and were more fearful of becoming fat.<ref name="Kaminski 2005">{{cite journal |last1=Kaminski |first1=P |title=Body image, eating behaviors, and attitudes toward exercise among gay and straight men |journal=Eating Behaviors |date=2005 |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=179–187|doi=10.1016/j.eatbeh.2004.11.003 |pmid=15854864 }}</ref> There is some evidence to link the sexual objectification of gay males and heterosexual females by men in general as a reason for increased numbers in these groups for eating disorders and stimulants addictions. Bisexual people have historically been overlooked within body image research, either subsumed under gay/lesbian labels or ignored completely.<ref name="Clarke et al 2012">{{cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=V |title=Lesbian, gay, bisexual and trans appearance and embodiment: A critical review of the psychological literature |journal=Psychology of Sexualities Review |date=2012 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=51–70|doi=10.53841/bpssex.2012.3.1.51 |s2cid=142769818 |url=http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/53017/1/WRAP_Huxley_2012%20POSR%20WRAP%20Feb%202013.pdf }}</ref>