Editing Boundary layer (section)

==The Prandtl boundary layer concept==
[[File:Prandtl portrait.jpg|thumb|Ludwig Prandtl|289x289px]]
[[File:Laminar boundary layer scheme.svg|thumb|322x322px|Laminar boundary layer velocity profile]] The [[Aerodynamics|aerodynamic]] boundary layer was first hypothesized by [[Ludwig Prandtl]] in a paper presented on August 12, 1904, at the third [[International Congress of Mathematicians]] in [[Heidelberg, Germany]]. It simplifies the equations of fluid flow by dividing the flow field into two areas: one inside the boundary layer, dominated by [[viscosity]] and creating the majority of [[drag (physics)|drag]] experienced by the boundary body; and one outside the boundary layer, where viscosity can be neglected without significant effects on the solution. This allows a [[closed-form solution]] for the flow in both areas by making significant simplifications of the full [[Navier–Stokes equations]]. The same hypothesis is applicable to other fluids (besides air) with moderate to low viscosity such as water.  For the case where there is a temperature difference between the surface and the bulk fluid, it is found that the majority of the [[heat transfer]] to and from a body takes place in the vicinity of the velocity boundary layer.  This again allows the equations to be simplified in the flow field outside the boundary layer.  The pressure distribution throughout the boundary layer in the direction normal to the surface (such as an [[airfoil]]) remains relatively constant throughout the boundary layer, and is the same as on the surface itself.

The [[Boundary-layer thickness|thickness]] of the velocity boundary layer is normally defined as the distance from the solid body to the point at which the viscous flow velocity is 99% of the freestream velocity (the surface velocity of an inviscid flow).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schlichting |first1=Hermann |last2=Gersten |first2=Klaus |title=Boundary-Layer theory |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-662-52917-1 |page=29 |edition=Ninth |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-662-52919-5_2 |access-date=5 August 2023 |chapter=2.1 Boundary–Layer Concept |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-52919-5_2 |quote=Frequently the boundary is arbitrarily given as being at the point where the velocity reaches a certain percentage of the outer velocity, e.g. 99%. For clarity, an index is often used, e.g δ99.}}</ref> [[Displacement thickness]] is an alternative definition stating that the boundary layer represents a deficit in mass flow compared to inviscid flow with slip at the wall. It is the distance by which the wall would have to be displaced in the inviscid case to give the same total mass flow as the viscous case. The [[no-slip condition]] requires the flow velocity at the surface of a solid object be zero and the fluid temperature be equal to the temperature of the surface. The flow velocity will then increase rapidly within the boundary layer, governed by the boundary layer equations, below.

The [[Thermal boundary layer thickness and shape|thermal boundary layer thickness]] is similarly the distance from the body at which the temperature is 99% of the freestream temperature. The ratio of the two thicknesses is governed by the [[Prandtl number]]. If the Prandtl number is 1, the two boundary layers are the same thickness.  If the Prandtl number is greater than 1, the thermal boundary layer is thinner than the velocity boundary layer. If the Prandtl number is less than 1, which is the case for air at standard conditions, the thermal boundary layer is thicker than the velocity boundary layer.

In high-performance designs, such as [[glider aircraft|glider]]s and commercial aircraft, much attention is paid to controlling the behavior of the boundary layer to minimize drag.  Two effects have to be considered. First, the boundary layer adds to the effective thickness of the body, through the [[displacement thickness]], hence increasing the pressure drag.  Secondly, the [[simple shear|shear]] forces at the surface of the wing create [[skin friction|skin friction drag]].

At high [[Reynolds number]]s, typical of full-sized aircraft, it is desirable to have a [[Laminar flow|laminar]] boundary layer. This results in a lower skin friction due to the characteristic velocity profile of laminar flow. However, the boundary layer inevitably thickens and becomes less stable as the flow develops along the body, and eventually becomes [[turbulent]], the process known as [[boundary layer transition]]. One way of dealing with this problem is to suck the boundary layer away through a [[porous]] surface (see [[Boundary layer suction]]). This can reduce drag, but is usually impractical due to its mechanical complexity and the power required to move the air and dispose of it. [[Natural laminar flow]] (NLF) techniques push the boundary layer transition aft by reshaping the airfoil or [[fuselage]] so that its thickest point is more aft and less thick. This reduces the velocities in the leading part and the same Reynolds number is achieved with a greater length.

At lower [[Reynolds number]]s, such as those seen with model aircraft, it is relatively easy to maintain laminar flow. This gives low skin friction, which is desirable. However, the same velocity profile which gives the laminar boundary layer its low skin friction also causes it to be badly affected by [[adverse pressure gradient]]s. As the pressure begins to recover over the rear part of the wing chord, a laminar boundary layer will tend to separate from the surface. Such [[flow separation]] causes a large increase in the [[pressure drag]], since it greatly increases the effective size of the wing section. In these cases, it can be advantageous to deliberately trip the boundary layer into turbulence at a point prior to the location of laminar separation, using a [[turbulator]]. The fuller velocity profile of the turbulent boundary layer allows it to sustain the adverse pressure gradient without separating. Thus, although the skin friction is increased, overall drag is decreased. This is the principle behind the dimpling on golf balls, as well as [[vortex generator]]s on aircraft. Special wing sections have also been designed which tailor the pressure recovery so laminar separation is reduced or even eliminated. This represents an optimum compromise between the pressure drag from flow separation and skin friction from induced turbulence.

When using half-models in wind tunnels, a [[peniche (fluid dynamics)|peniche]] is sometimes used to reduce or eliminate the effect of the boundary layer.