Editing Caesaropapism (section)

==Western Church==
{{Main|Byzantine Papacy|Papal appointment}}
{{More citations needed|section|date=July 2021}}
[[File:San Vitale Ravenna.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Basilica of San Vitale]] in [[Ravenna]], Italy combines Western and Byzantine elements.]]

[[Justinian I]] conquered the Italian peninsula in the [[Gothic War (535–554)]] and [[papal selection before 1059|appointed the next three popes]], a practice that would be continued by his successors and would later be delegated to the [[Exarchate of Ravenna]]. The ''Byzantine Papacy'' was a period of [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] domination of the [[pope|papacy]] from 537 to 752, when popes required the approval of the [[List of Byzantine emperors|Byzantine Emperor]] for [[consecration#Catholic Church|episcopal consecration]], and many popes were chosen from the [[apocrisiarius| ''apocrisiarii'']] (diplomatic envoys from the pope to the emperor) or from the inhabitants of [[Byzantine Greece]], [[Byzantine Syria]], or [[History of Sicily#Byzantine period|Byzantine Sicily]].

In the [[Latin West]], medieval secular rulers vied with the [[papacy]] for overall power, notably in the [[Investiture Controversy]] of the 11th and 12th centuries and in the struggles between [[Guelphs and Ghibellines]] from the 12th to the 14th centuries, but neither the [[Kingdom of Germany | German Kings]] nor the [[Holy Roman Emperor]]s ever succeeded in establishing any long-term dominance over the [[Holy See | Vatican]]. Emperors could at times exert influence over the election of [[Bishop of Rome | Bishops of Rome]],<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Angelov
 |first1               = Dimiter
 |last2                = Herrin
 |first2               = Judith
 |author-link2         = Judith Herrin
 |editor-last1         = Bang
 |editor-first1        = Peter Fibiger
 |editor-link1         = Peter Fibiger Bang
 |editor-last2         = Kołodziejczyk
 |editor-first2        = Dariusz
 |editor-link2         = Dariusz Kołodziejczyk
 |date                 = 16 August 2012
 |chapter              = The Christian imperial tradition: Greek and Latin
 |title                = Universal Empire: A Comparative Approach to Imperial Culture and Representation in Eurasian History
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=xiKtT85kYloC
 |publisher            = Cambridge University Press
 |page                 = 168
 |isbn                 = 9781107022676
 |access-date          = 10 December 2024
 |quote                = The college of cardinals was founded in 1059 and hence the election of the pope was freed from secular intervention, notably that of the emperor.
}} 
</ref>
they could claim  the right ({{langx | la-VA | [[jus exclusivae]]}}) to veto a papal candidate (last [[1903 papal conclave | exercised in 1903]] by [[Franz Joseph I of Austria | His Imperial and Royal Apostolic Majesty The Emperor of Austria, Apostolic King of Hungary]]), or they could support rival [[antipope]]s. "Conquering kings" (the [[Theophylacti]] between the 10th and 12th centuries, [[Napoleon Bonaparte | Napoleon I]] in 1809, [[Victor Emmanuel II]] in 1870, for example) could curb a Pope's [[Papal States | political rule]], but they could not reliably control the Holy Father, and the papacy generally asserted and maintained its spiritual independence from secular control. In protestant regions in the [[Holy Roman Empire]], the princes had the {{ill|summepiscopate|de|Landesherrliches Kirchenregiment}} and remained in control until the introduction of the [[Weimar Constitution]] in 1919.{{cn|date=May 2025}}

===Anglican Communion===
[[File:1491 Henry VIII.jpg|thumb|upright|Henry VIII ({{circa|1531}})]]
During the dispute between King [[Henry VIII of England]] and [[Pope Clement VII]] over Henry's wish to have his marriage to [[Catherine of Aragon]] [[Declaration of nullity|annulled]], the [[English Parliament]] passed the [[Act in Restraint of Appeals]] (1533). It stated:

{{quote|Where by divers sundry old authentic histories and chronicles it is manifestly declared and expressed that this realm of England is an empire, and so hath been accepted in the world, governed by one supreme head and king, having the dignity and royal estate of the [[imperial crown]] of the same.<ref>[http://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/123/123week9.htm  The opening words of the Act in restraint of Appeals, 1533]</ref>}}

The next year Parliament passed the  [[Act of Supremacy|First Act of Supremacy]] (1534) that explicitly tied the head of church to the imperial crown of England:

{{quote|The only supreme head in earth of the [[Church of England]] called Anglicana Ecclesia, and shall have and enjoy annexed and united to the imperial crown of this realm.<ref>[http://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/123/123week9.htm Excerpt from The Act of Supremacy (1534)]</ref>}}

The [[Crown of Ireland Act 1542|Crown of Ireland Act]], passed by the Irish Parliament in 1541 (effective 1542), changed the traditional title used by the Monarchs of England for the reign over Ireland, from [[Lord of Ireland]] to [[King of Ireland]] and named Henry head of the [[Church of Ireland]], for similar reasons.

During the rule of Queen [[Mary I of England]] ({{reign | 1553 | 1558}}), the First Act of Supremacy was annulled, but during the reign of Queen [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] the [[Second Act of Supremacy]], with similar wording to the First Act, was passed in 1559. During the [[English Interregnum]] of 1649 to 1660 the [[Acts of Supremacy | laws]] were annulled, but the acts which caused the laws to be in abeyance were themselves deemed null and void by the Parliaments of the [[English Restoration]] from 1660 onwards.

When Elizabeth I restored royal supremacy, she replaced the title [[Supreme Head of the Church of England| "Supreme Head"]] with that of [[Supreme Governor of the Church of England| "Supreme Governor"]], a conciliatory change designed to mollify English Catholics and the more radical of the English Protestants. 

According to [[Nicholas Sanders]] ({{circa | 1530}} - 1581), however: <blockquote> "The Queen lays down for her clergy a rule of life, outside of which they dare not move, not only in those things which Protestants call indifferent, but in all matters of Faith, discipline, and doctrine, in virtue of that supreme spiritual power with which she is invested: she suspends her bishops when she pleases, she grants a license to preach, either to those who are ordained according to her rite or to simple laymen, in the same way at her pleasure reduces those whom she will to silence. To show her authority in these things, she occasionally, from her closet, addresses her preacher, and interrupts him in the presence of a large congregation, in some such way as this: 'Mr. Doctor, you are wandering from the text, and talking nonsense. Return to your subject.{{'"}}<ref> Philip Caraman (1960), ''The Other Face: Catholic Life under Elizabeth I'', [[Longman, Green, and Co]]. Page 65.</ref></blockquote>

Since 1559, the royal monarchs of England, of Great Britain, and of the United Kingdom have claimed the "Supreme Governor" status as well as the title of [[fidei defensor| "Defender of the Faith"]] (which was originally bestowed on Henry VIII by [[Pope Leo X]] but later revoked by [[Pope Paul III]], as that was originally an award for Henry VIII's 1521 anti-Lutheran treatise ''[[Defence of the Seven Sacraments]]'').

Despite his continued persecution of both Catholic [[Recusants]] and [[English Dissenters]], [[James I of England|King James I]] ({{reign | 1603 | 1625}}) preferred not to do anything else that might otherwise encourage factional strife within the [[Anglican Communion]]. His son and heir, [[Charles I of England|King Charles I]] ({{reign | 1625 | 1649}}), through his insistence upon promoting the [[Laudianism|High-Church reforms]] advocated by the [[Caroline Divines]] and by Archbishop [[William Laud]], alienated opponents of [[Anglo-Catholicism]] and lost his throne in the course of the [[English Civil War]] of 1642-1651.{{cn|date=May 2025}}

The [[Glorious Revolution|1688 overthrow]] of the [[House of Stuart]] was caused by the efforts of [[James II of England|King James II]] ({{reign | 1685 | 1688}}) to partially annul the Act of Supremacy by granting [[Catholic Emancipation]] more than two hundred years before [[Daniel O'Connell]]. As many Anglicans saw James's attempts as in violation of the King's [[Coronation oath of the British monarch | Coronation Oath]], Parliament blocked every bill, which caused the King to simply order Catholic Emancipation into effect using his [[Royal Prerogative]]. In response, Parliament successfully invited the King's son-in-law, [[William III of England|William of Orange]] to invade England and to take the throne.

Even though King James II and his exiled heirs remained Catholics, their overthrow divided the [[Anglican Communion]] in what is now known as the [[Non-juring schism]]. Anglican [[Jacobitism|Jacobites]], or Non-Jurors, embraced the [[Anglo-Catholicism]] advanced by the Stuart monarchs between 1603 and 1688. During each of the [[Jacobite risings]], Non-Juring Anglican chaplains accompanied the Jacobite armies. The schism faded following{{cn|date=December 2024}} the 1788 death of Prince [[Charles Edward Stuart]] and the inheritance of his claim to the throne by his younger brother, Prince [[Henry Benedict Stuart]], a [[Catholic priest]] and Cardinal.