Editing Calafia (section)

==Etymology==
[[File:California island Vinckeboons5.jpg|thumb|An early conception of the [[Island of California]], this map is the result of partial exploration and guesswork]]
{{Main|Origin of the name California}}
The first voyage of [[Christopher Columbus]] in the late 15th century sparked a new interest in the search for "Terrestrial Paradise", a legendary land of ease and riches, with beautiful women wearing gold and pearls.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gudde |first1=Erwin G. |last2=Bright |first2=William |title=California Place Names: The Origin and Etymology of Current Geographical Names |edition=4 |year=2004 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=0-520-24217-3 |pages=59–61}}</ref> Spanish author [[Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo]] drew upon reports from the New World to add interest to his fantasy world of chivalry and battle, of riches, victory, and loss, of an upside-down depiction of traditional sex roles. Around the year 1500 in his novel ''The Adventures of Esplandián'', he writes:
{{blockquote|Know ye that at the right hand of the Indies there is an island called California, very close to that part of the Terrestrial Paradise, which was inhabited by black women without a single man among them, and they lived in the manner of [[Amazons]]. They were robust of body with strong passionate hearts and great virtue. The island itself is one of the wildest in the world on account of the bold and craggy rocks.<ref>Putnam, 1917, [https://archive.org/stream/cu31924008278347#page/n23/mode/1up/ p. 306]</ref>}}

The explorer [[Hernán Cortés]] and his men were familiar with the book;<ref>Putnam, 1917, pp. 300–301</ref> Cortés quoted it in 1524. As governor of Mexico he sent out an expedition of two ships, one guided by the famous [[Maritime pilot|pilot]] [[Fortún Ximénez]] who led a mutiny, killing the expedition's leader, [[Diego de Becerra]], and a number of sailors faithful to Becerra.<ref>Putnam, 1917, pp. 327–328</ref> After the mutiny, Ximénez continued sailing north by northwest and, in early 1534, landed at what is known today as [[La Paz, Baja California Sur]]. Ximénez, who reported pearls found, believed the land was a large island.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chapman |first=Charles E. |title=A history of California: the Spanish period  |url=https://archive.org/details/ahistorycalifor01chapgoog |year=1921 |publisher=Macmillan |page=[https://archive.org/details/ahistorycalifor01chapgoog/page/n85 65]}}</ref> He and his escort of sailors were killed by natives when they went ashore for water. The few remaining sailors brought the ship and its story back to Cortés. There is some dispute whether the land was named at this time—no record exists of Ximénez giving it a name.
[[File:Calafia State Beach in San Clemente, California (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Calafia State Beach, located in [[San Clemente, California]].]]
In 1535, Cortés led an expedition back to the land, arriving on May 1, 1535, a day known as ''Santa Cruz de Mayo'', and in keeping with methods of contemporary discoverers, he named it ''Santa Cruz''.<ref>Putnam, 1917, pp. 333–334</ref> It is not known who first named the area ''California'' but between 1550 and 1556, the name appears three times in reports about Cortés written by [[Giovanni Battista Ramusio]]. However, the name ''California'' also appears in a 1542 journal kept by explorer [[Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo]], who used it casually, as if it were already popular.<ref>Chapman, 1921, p. 66</ref> In 1921, California historian Charles E. Chapman theorized that Ximénez named the new land ''California'' but the name was not accepted by Cortés because Ximénez was a mutineer who killed Becerra, a kinsman of Cortés.<ref>Chapman, 1921, pp. 65–66</ref> Despite this, the name became the one used popularly by Spaniards, the only name used by non-Spaniard Europeans, and by 1770, the entire Pacific coast controlled by Spain was officially known as California. The Spanish-speaking people who lived there were called [[Californio]]s.<ref name=Calisphere>{{cite web |url=http://www.calisphere.universityofcalifornia.edu/calcultures/ethnic_groups/subtopic3a.html |title=Hispanic Americans: Spanish Colonization and Californios (1769–1800s) |year=2010 |work=California Cultures |publisher=The Regents of The University of California |access-date=January 5, 2011 |archive-date=August 30, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100830152703/http://www.calisphere.universityofcalifornia.edu/calcultures/ethnic_groups/subtopic3a.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

For many years, the Rodríguez de Montalvo novel languished in obscurity, with no connection known between it and the name of California made by English-speaking American settlers. In 1864, a portion of the original was translated by [[Edward Everett Hale]] for The Antiquarian Society, and the story was printed in the ''[[Atlantic Monthly]]'' magazine.<ref name=Hale>{{cite magazine |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=chi.42553197&view=1up&seq=281 |title=The Queen of California |last=Hale |first=Edward Everett |author-link=Edward Everett Hale |pages=265–278 |periodical=Atlantic Monthly |date=March 1864 |volume=13 |issue=77 |access-date=2023-02-21 |archive-date=2023-02-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230221072302/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=chi.42553197&view=1up&seq=281 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hale supposed that in inventing the names, Rodríguez de Montalvo held in his mind the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word ''calif'', the term for a leader of the Muslim people.<ref name=Polk130>Polk, 1995, p. 130</ref> Hale's joint derivation of ''Calafia'' and ''California'' was accepted by many, then questioned by a few scholars who sought further proof, and offered their own interpretations. [[George Davidson (geographer)|George Davidson]] wrote in 1910 that Hale's theory was the best yet presented, but offered his own addition.<ref>Putnam, 1917, pp. 293–294</ref>

In 1917, Ruth Putnam printed an exhaustive account of the work performed up to that time. She wrote that both ''Calafia'' and ''California'' most likely came from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word ''khalifa'' which means ruler or leader. The same word in Spanish was ''califa'', easily made into ''California'' to stand for "land of the caliph", or ''Calafia'' to stand for "female caliph".<ref name=Putnam356>Putnam, 1917, p. 356</ref> Putnam discussed Davidson's 1910 theory based on the Greek word ''kalli'' (meaning beautiful) but discounted it as exceedingly unlikely,<ref name=Putnam356/> a conclusion that Dora Beale Polk agreed with in 1995, calling the theory "far-fetched".<ref name=Polk130/> Putnam also wrote that ''[[The Song of Roland]]'' held a passing mention of a place called ''Califerne'', perhaps named thus because it was the caliph's domain, a place of infidel rebellion.<ref name=Polk130/> Chapman elaborated on this connection in 1921: "There can be no question but that a learned man like Ordóñez de Montalvo was familiar with the ''Chanson de Roland''&nbsp;...This derivation of the word 'California' can perhaps never be proved, but it is too plausible—and it may be added too interesting—to be overlooked."<ref>Chapman, 1921, pp. 63–64</ref> Polk characterized this theory as "imaginative speculation", adding that another scholar offered the "interestingly plausible" suggestion that Roland's ''Califerne'' is a corruption of the Persian ''Kar-i-farn'', a mythological "mountain of Paradise" where griffins lived.<ref>Polk, 1995, p. 131</ref>

In 1923, [[Prosper Boissonnade]], Dean of Literature at the [[University of Poitiers]], wrote that a fortified capital city in 11th century [[Algeria]] was built and defended by the Beni-Iferne tribe of [[Berber people]]. This city was called Kalaa-Iferne or Kal-Iferne by the Arabs, and was certainly known at the time in Spain; today it is the ruins known as [[Beni Hammad Fort]]. Boissonnade said the Arab name of this fortress city likely inspired Roland and later Rodríguez de Montalvo, such that ''Kal-Iferne'' became first ''Califerne'' and then ''California''.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=41169718 |title=New Light on the Name of California |last=Austin |first=Herbert D. |year=1923 |journal=Annual Publication of the Historical Society of Southern California |publisher=Historical Society of Southern California |volume=12 |number=3 |pages=29–31 |doi=10.2307/41169718}} First published in French as P. Boissonnade (1923) "Du Nouveau sur la Chanson de Roland", Champion.</ref> [[John William Templeton]] describes how Hernán Cortés' expedition in search of California had Africans as a third of his crew, including his second-in-command, [[Juan Garrido]]. Templeton says that Calafia is exemplary of a genre of literature from the 14th to the 16th centuries that featured black women as powerful, wealthy and beautiful. Historian Jack Forbes wrote that the Spanish were quite experienced in being ruled by Africans given the Moorish occupation from 710 to 1490.<ref>Our Roots Run Deep: the Black Experience in California, Vol. 4, The Black Queen: How African-Americans Put California on the Map, 1998, ASPIRE SAN FRANCISCO, ed. John William Templeton.</ref>