Editing Caliphate (section)

== Rashidun Caliphate (632–661) ==
{{Main|Rashidun|Rashidun Caliphate}}

=== Succession to Muhammad ===
{{Main|Succession to Muhammad}}
{{See also|Saqifa}}
In the immediate aftermath of the death of Muhammad, a gathering of the [[Ansar (Islam)|Ansar]] (natives of [[Medina]]) took place in the ''saqifa'' (courtyard) of the [[Banu Sa'ida]] clan.{{sfn|Fitzpatrick|Walker|2014|p=3}} The general belief at the time was that the purpose of the meeting was for the Ansar to decide on a new leader of the [[Muslim community]] among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of the [[Muhajirun]] (migrants from [[Mecca]]), though this has later become the subject of debate.<ref>{{cite book |first=Wilferd |last=Madelung |title=The Succession to Muhammad |year=1997 |page=[https://archive.org/details/TheSuccessionToMuhammadByWilferdMadelung/page/n50 31] |url=https://archive.org/details/TheSuccessionToMuhammadByWilferdMadelung}}</ref>

Nevertheless, [[Abu Bakr]] and [[Umar]], both prominent companions of Muhammad, upon learning of the meeting became concerned of a potential coup and hastened to the gathering. Upon arriving, Abu Bakr addressed the assembled men with a warning that an attempt to elect a leader outside of Muhammad's own tribe, the [[Quraysh]], would likely result in dissension as only they can command the necessary respect among the community. He then took Umar and another companion, [[Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah]], by the hand and offered them to the Ansar as potential choices. He was countered with the suggestion that the Quraysh and the Ansar choose a leader each from among themselves, who would then rule jointly. The group grew heated upon hearing this proposal and began to argue among themselves. Umar hastily took Abu Bakr's hand and swore his own allegiance to the latter, an example followed by the gathered men.<ref>{{harvtxt|Madelung|1997|page=32}}</ref>

Abu Bakr was near-universally accepted as head of the Muslim community (under the title of caliph) as a result of ''Saqifah'', though he did face contention as a result of the rushed nature of the event. Several companions, most prominent among them being [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]], initially refused to acknowledge his authority.<ref>{{harvtxt|Fitzpatrick|Walker|2014|p=3}}</ref> Ali may have been reasonably expected to assume leadership, being both cousin and son-in-law to Muhammad.<ref>Valerie J. Hoffman, ''The Essentials of Ibadi Islam'' (2012), p. 6</ref> The theologian [[Ibrahim al-Nakha'i]] stated that Ali also had support among the Ansar for his succession, explained by the genealogical links he shared with them. Whether his candidacy for the succession was raised during Saqifah is unknown, though it is not unlikely.<ref>{{harvtxt|Madelung|1997|pages=32–33}}</ref> Abu Bakr later sent Umar to confront Ali to gain his allegiance, resulting in [[Attack on Fatima's house|an altercation]] which may have involved violence.<ref>{{harvtxt|Fitzpatrick|Walker|2014|p=186}}</ref> However, after six months, the group made peace with Abu Bakr and Ali offered him his fealty.<ref>{{harvtxt|Fitzpatrick|Walker|2014|p=4}}</ref>

=== Rashidun caliphs ===
{{See also|Early Muslim conquests}}
[[File:Mohammad adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG|thumb|left|Rashidun Caliphate at its greatest extent under Uthman]]
Abu Bakr nominated Umar as his successor on his deathbed. Umar, the second caliph, was killed by a Persian slave called [[Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz]]. His successor, Uthman, was elected by a council of electors ([[majlis]]). Uthman was killed by members of a disaffected group. [[Ali]] then took control but was not universally accepted as caliph by the governors of Egypt and later by some of his own guard. He faced two major rebellions and was assassinated by [[Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam]], a [[Khawarij]]. Ali's tumultuous rule lasted only five years. This period is known as the [[First Fitna|Fitna]], or the first Islamic civil war. The followers of Ali later became the Shi'a ("shiaat Ali", partisans of Ali.<ref name="The Economist-2013">{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/economist-explains/2013/05/economist-explains-19 |newspaper=The Economist |title=What is the difference between Sunni and Shia Muslims? |date=28 May 2013 |access-date=13 July 2017 |archive-date=25 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170725153328/http://www.economist.com/blogs/economist-explains/2013/05/economist-explains-19 |url-status=live}}</ref>) minority sect of Islam and reject the legitimacy of the first three caliphs. The followers of all four Rāshidun Caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali) became the majority Sunni sect.
[[File:First_Islamic_coins_by_caliph_Uthman-mohammad_adil_rais.jpg|thumb|230px|right| [[File:Rashidun_coin_Pseudo-Byzantine_types.jpg|thumb|230px|right]] The ''rāshidūn'' caliphs used symbols of the [[Sasanian Empire]] ([[Star and crescent]], [[Fire temple]], depictions of the last [[Sasanians|Sasanian emperor]] [[Khosrow II]]) by adding the Arabic expression ''[[Basmala|bismillāh]]'' on their coins, instead of designing new ones.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author1-last=Album |author1-first=Stephen |author2-last=Bates |author2-first=Michael L. |author3-last=Floor |author3-first=Willem |author3-link=Willem Floor |title=COINS AND COINAGE |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage- |volume=VI/1 |pages=14–41 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |publisher=[[Columbia University]] |location=[[New York City|New York]] |date=30 December 2012 |orig-date=15 December 1992 |doi=10.1163/2330-4804_EIRO_COM_7783 |doi-access=free |issn=2330-4804 |access-date=23 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150517020427/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage- |archive-date=17 May 2015 |url-status=live |quote=As the Arabs of the Ḥejāz had used the ''drahms'' of the Sasanian emperors, the only silver coinage in the world at that time, it was natural for them to leave many of the Sasanian mints in operation, striking coins like those of the emperors in every detail except for the addition of brief Arabic inscriptions like ''besmellāh'' in the margins. [...] In the year 79/698 reformed Islamic dirhams with inscriptions and no images replaced the Sasanian types at nearly all mints. During this transitional period in the 690s specifically Muslim inscriptions appeared on the coins for the first time; previously Allāh (God) had been mentioned but not the prophet Moḥammad, and there had been no reference to any Islamic doctrines. Owing to civil unrest (e.g., the revolt of ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān b. Ašʿaṯ, q.v., against Ḥajjāj in 81/701), coins of Sasanian type continued to be issued at certain mints in Fārs, Kermān, and Sīstān, but by 84/703 these mints had either been closed down or converted to production of the new dirhams. The latest known Arab-Sasanian coin, an extraordinary issue, is dated 85/704-05, though some mints in the east, still outside Muslim control, continued producing imitation Arab-Sasanian types for perhaps another century.}}</ref> Second picture; Coin of the Rāshidūn Caliphate (632–675 CE). Pseudo-Byzantine type with depictions of the Byzantine emperor [[Constans II]] holding the cross-tipped staff and ''[[globus cruciger]]'']]

Under the Rāshidun, each region ([[Sultan]]ate, [[Wilayah]], or [[Emirate]]) of the caliphate had its own governor (Sultan, [[Wāli]] or [[Emir]]). [[Muawiyah I|Muāwiyah]], a relative of Uthman and governor (''wali'') of [[Syria]], succeeded Ali as caliph. Muāwiyah transformed the caliphate into a [[Inheritance|hereditary]] office, thus founding the Umayyad [[dynasty]].

In areas which were previously under [[Sasanian Empire]] or [[Byzantine]] rule, the caliphs lowered taxes, provided greater local autonomy (to their delegated governors), greater religious freedom for Jews and some indigenous Christians, and brought peace to peoples demoralised and disaffected by the casualties and heavy taxation that resulted from the decades of [[Roman–Persian Wars|Byzantine–Persian warfare]].<ref>[[John Esposito]] (1992)</ref>

=== Ali's caliphate, Hasan and the rise of the Umayyads ===
Ali's reign was plagued by turmoil and internal strife. The Persians, taking advantage of this, infiltrated the two armies and attacked the other army causing chaos and internal hatred between the [[Companions of Muhammad|companions]] at the [[Battle of Siffin]]. The battle lasted several months, resulting in a stalemate. To avoid further bloodshed, Ali agreed to negotiate with Mu'awiyah. This caused a faction of approximately 4,000 people, who would come to be known as the [[Kharijites]], to abandon the fight. After defeating the Kharijites at the [[Battle of Nahrawan]], Ali was later assassinated by the Kharijite Ibn Muljam. Ali's son [[Hasan ibn Ali|Hasan]] was elected as the next caliph, but abdicated in favour of Mu'awiyah a few months later to avoid any conflict within the Muslims. Mu'awiyah became the sixth caliph, establishing the Umayyad dynasty,<ref>''The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam''. Cyril Glasse. pp. 39–41, 318–319, 353–354, {{ISBN?}}</ref> named after the great-grandfather of Uthman and Mu'awiyah, [[Umayya ibn Abd Shams]].<ref>Uthman was the son of [[Affan ibn Abi al-'As|`Affan]], the son of [[Abu al-'As ibn Umayyah|Abu-l`As]], the son of [[Umayya ibn Abd Shams]]. Mu'awiyah was the son of [[Abu Sufyan]], the son of [[Harb ibn Umayya|Harb]], the son of Umayya ibn Abd Shams.</ref>